Snapshots: Australians in War and Conflict

Content warning

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander readers are advised that the following stories contain the names and images of people who have died. Readers should note that some of the situations recounted in this resource are from different times and may use terminology or describe experiences and perspectives that are confronting or considered inappropriate today. This includes the treatment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and descriptions of the people involved in wars and conflicts. Teachers are advised to be sensitive to the perspectives and emotions of students while using this resource.

Introduction

Australia's service history is much more than a series of military events. It is a rich tapestry of personal stories to tell and retell. The experiences of people in wartime over more than 100 years create and enrich a shared learning about our past.

The stories in this book, brought to life by real anecdotes, reflect the experiences of veterans and other Australians. They begin with the First World War and include personal records from wars, conflicts and peace operations.

Until the 1970s, communication from overseas to Australia was slow and unreliable during most conflicts. Family and friends back home waited months for news. The letters they received were cherished. Some letters became important records of wartime experiences. Postcards and a few posted photographs gave a visual glimpse of service life.

Through 24 topics, we follow people's contributions to Australia's war and peacekeeping efforts. Each story reflects today's Australian Defence Force values of service, courage, respect, integrity and excellence.

We continue to remember those who served, those who continue to serve and those who died as a result of their service. This collection honours them and their families. Lest we forget.

Underage volunteers

The assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 sparked a chain of events that escalated quickly across Europe and further afield to become what was known as The Great War. In early August that year, Germany marched into Belgium, and in response, Great Britain declared war against Germany. Australia, as a dominion of the British Empire, willingly joined the war, with recruitment offices quickly opening across the country.

Australian men between the ages of 21 and 38 were encouraged to enlist. Men aged 18 to 21 years required written permission from a parent or guardian. Thousands of men swamped the recruitment offices, ready to do their part for 'King and Country'. Many enlisted for the adventure, the escape from their normal life or because of the appeal of a regular wage. Some younger Australians, with similar motivations, were also hatching their own plans to enlist.

James (Jim) Martin was one of the 'boy soldiers'.

Born in Tocumwal in New South Wales (NSW), Jim was a tall and physically fit teenager when the First World War began. Keen to fight for the British Empire, he presented himself to a recruitment office to see if he could enlist. After talking to one of the officers and lying about his age, Jim was told he could join up and go to war. Understandably, his mother was less enthusiastic, so Jim threatened to run away and join up elsewhere under a false name. His threat worked, and his mother reluctantly agreed to provide her written permission. Jim was 14 years and 3 months old when he enlisted.

After completing operational training, Jim sailed for Egypt in June 1915 with the 21st Battalion of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) and eventually to Gallipoli. Life in the trenches was extremely difficult. By the time Jim's battalion arrived on the Gallipoli peninsula in September, the autumn weather was becoming colder, and the Turkish forces were well established in their positions. No one expected the Gallipoli Campaign to last as long as it did. Reduced rations and sickness from diseases took a great toll on the Australian troops.

It was October that year when Jim fell ill with enteritis. He was soon too sick to remain in the battle and was evacuated to a hospital ship in the waters off Gallipoli. The medical staff did their very best for Jim, but he was too sick, and he died barely 2 hours after arriving on the ship. Jim was less than 3 months short of his 15th birthday when he died. He was buried at sea and is remembered on the Lone Pine Memorial at Gallipoli.

Whilst it is impossible to pinpoint the exact number of underage volunteers who enlisted, it is believed that hundreds of young Australians enlisted and will be forever known as 'boy soldiers' or 'boy sailors'. Historians at the Australian War Memorial have identified 235 underage volunteers from the First World War, including Private Frank Samuel Augustus Taylor.

Frank grew up in Bendigo, and after finishing school, he worked for Bendigo Pottery and then the local grocery store. He was a keen Australian Rules football player when he enlisted in 1914. Sadly, Frank was killed on 3 May 1915 and is buried at Anzac Cove, Gallipoli.

It was not just the boys who wanted to do their part in the war. Young Maud Butler from Kurri Kurri in NSW wanted desperately to become a nurse. She was refused at the Red Cross Depot and Victoria Barracks due to her lack of experience.

She took matters into her own hands and, at 16 years of age, bought a uniform, cut her hair and hid in a lifeboat on HMAT Suevic. Maud was discovered after 2 days out at sea. Upon realising she was a girl, the captain transferred her to a passing ship bound for Australia.

Within months, Maud again attempted to stow away, this time on board HMAT Star of England. Despite her best efforts, she was discovered when the name on the dog tags she had made didn't match the ship's records, and she was taken off the ship before it left the port. Maud abandoned her attempts to get overseas and instead turned her efforts to helping where she could in Australia.

During the First World War, men and women served for many different reasons. For many, the motivation was strong and was not limited to those over the age of 18 years. May we continue to remember and honour those who are forever young.

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Periscope rifle

William Beech served for just 6 months in the Gallipoli campaign during the First World War, but his impact in that time was immense.

Born in England in 1878, William served for 5 years as part of the Shropshire Yeomanry Cavalry and for 2 years in South Africa as part of the Volunteer Field Artillery before emigrating to Australia in 1910. Shortly after the war broke out in 1914, William enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF).

At 36 years of age, William was older than many of the men he served with. His considerable military experience prompted his rapid promotion to Lance Corporal and then to Sergeant in 1915. William's foremost contribution came from the combination of that military experience, along with the know-how derived from his civilian job as a builder.

By May 1915, the campaign against the Turkish on the Gallipoli peninsula had ground to a standstill. Soldiers on both sides were fighting from deep, narrow trenches. Those trenches afforded the only refuge from danger, yet they also kept the men in them from seeing the enemy. Snipers were vigilant at spotting and then targeting any head or limb that appeared above a trench.

William knew just how effective those snipers were. When he came upon a trench that had been recently attacked, 5 of his colleagues lay dead, each of them shot by Turkish snipers. William picked up a periscope and used it to look over the trench wall and saw that some Turks were in the open.

'Had we attempted to aim over the top [at the Turkish]', wrote another soldier, later, 'we would have exposed our head and should have immediately followed our dead pals'. 1

According to this account, William began crying from grief. But he was also frustrated. In his despair, he hit upon a solution: 'It's hell to see this mass of Turks, and not being able to bomb or aim at them. With a periscope fixed to a rifle, it would be possible to fire accurately, without personal danger'.2

In the days that followed, William tried to build such a rifle. 'One day, I faked up a sort of thing with an old biscuit box and broken pieces of mirror', he said later. 3

Major Thomas Blamey, touring the trenches, saw William and another soldier wrestling with this rudimentary device. One of the 2 explained what they were doing: if the periscope were fitted just so, a sniper standing in the safety of the trench would be able to look into the lower glass and see in the reflection of the upper glass the rifle's sight. Without ever exposing himself to danger, he could aim it and fire.

Periscope rifles were not wholly new inventions. Soldiers in other theatres of the war were grappling with the same problem and coming to the same solution. But William's creation was independent and immediately effective.

Tests showed that it was accurate up to 300 yards. Major Blamey, sensing its value, had William brought to headquarters to begin creating periscope rifles en masse. They were sent to Quinn's Post, one of the most dangerous places on the peninsula, a few metres from enemy trenches and covered by Turkish snipers. Thus equipped, the garrison that had been almost unable to fire a shot for fear of being killed was now able to fire at the enemy with less risk to themselves.

'It became possible to fire from the loopholes and even, for a few seconds at a time, to look over the parapet', wrote correspondent Charles Bean later. 4

It was a simple device but a clever one, and William's superiors made sure to reward him for it. 'From my personal observations', wrote William Birdwood, commander of the Anzac troops at the time, 'I am able to speak of the considerable value of his device to our troops in Gallipoli, and I may state that every Battalion that we had with us very greatly appreciated Mr Beech's device then'. 5

William was later awarded £100 in recognition of his ingenuity. By then, the war was long over. William had been invalided out in October 1915, falling ill with sciatica and neurasthenia, and upon his discharge, he continued to serve as a recruiting sergeant in Condobolin. Resuming work as a builder, William died in 1929, aged 51.

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Bully beef for the Turks

Located on the northern edge of the main Anzac line on the Gallipoli peninsula, Quinn's Post was a battlefield area consisting of trenches and tunnels. It was the site of some of the most intense events seen during the Gallipoli campaign in the First World War. Over several months in 1915, Major Leslie George Fussell, with the 17th Battalion, fought hard to hold Quinn's Post.

Charles Bean described the holding of Quinn's Post as one of the Australian Imperial Force's (AIF) finest feats. It was believed that if it had fallen to the Turkish forces, they would have broken into the core of the Anzac position, and the entire Anzac front could have been lost. A strategic location, Quinn's Post was also the site of a unique moment between Turkish and Australian Forces.

On an unusually quiet October day, Major Fussell took the opportunity to instruct his men on the correct technique of bomb throwing. Prior to 1915, bomb-throwing was a relatively new skill for Australian soldiers. It was not until August 1915 that Allied troops were issued with hand grenades (known at the time as bombs). Before the use of specially made hand grenades, Australian troops made their own bombs. Assembled from old food tins and barbed wire, the troops called these 'jam tin bombs'.

The fighting conditions on the Gallipoli peninsula, with the Allies and the Turkish forces bogged down in their trenches, accelerated the need for hand grenades. During Major Fussell's bomb-throwing demonstration, he picked up the nearest object – a can of bully beef. Whilst explaining the technique, Major Fussell launched the can in demonstration. The bully beef can landed accurately in the Turks' trench. What happened next? Did the Turkish soldiers eat the beef or throw it back? Major Fussell's bomb-throwing lesson led to an unanticipated response.

In the Turkish trench, this unexpected item was greeted with joy and surprise. A short time later, a package was thrown into the Australian trench. The package contained tobacco with a note written in poor French. The letter read:

My dear Australian friends, we have taken your gift of preserved meat, and we are delighted. It is an excellent gift. We ask you for a souvenir, and in the place of your souvenir we shall give you another one. Please accept our compliments now, and in return for your gift of preserved meat we are sending a piece of tobacco. – Your fellow soldiers, Turks. 6

A postscript asked the Australian soldiers for a good knife.

In a letter to his father, Major Fussell explained that with assistance from a private, he sent a less friendly reply to the Turks. Nevertheless, more souvenirs and notes were passed between the trenches. These exchanges continued until senior officers heard of the activities and stopped the Australians. During this moment in time, enemies at war put down their weapons and exchanged gifts, all the while improving their bomb-throwing skills.

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Gallipoli truce

On 24 May 1915, Australian and Turkish soldiers fighting at Gallipoli put down their weapons and met in 'no man's land' to bury their dead. It was the only ceasefire to have official agreement during the First World War, and it marked a brief moment of goodwill on the battlefield.

Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) troops landed in the Ari Burnu area of the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915. The Anzacs were part of an Allied force that aimed to force the Ottoman Empire out of the war. Other Allied troops landed at nearby Cape Helles.

The first weeks of the Gallipoli campaign were brutal and resulted in thousands of Allied and Turkish deaths. Many bodies lay out in the sun on the hillsides, attracting flies. Snipers, shelling and machine-gun fire prevented their recovery or burial. The smell became unbearable, and there were concerns about an outbreak of disease.

The Turks proposed a truce to bury the dead. Australian Imperial Force (AIF) commanders, wary of a surprise attack, resisted at first. A few days later, a blindfolded Turkish officer was led along the beach to Anzac headquarters, where an agreement was reached.

Whistles were blown to announce the start of the ceasefire at 7:30 am. Men climbed from the trenches, some carrying white flags and others with shovels, to perform the unpleasant but necessary task.

AIF medical officer Dr Charles Ryan supervised the Australian stretcher-bearers as they worked. Dr Ryan had an interesting past: he had served as a member of the Turkish army in wars against Serbia and Russia in the 1870s. In recognition, he had been decorated by the Ottoman Sultan for his gallant service.

During the ceasefire, Dr Ryan was accused of taking medals from dead Turkish soldiers. He spoke to his accusers in fluent Turkish, explaining how he had earned the medals and was warmly embraced by those who were now his country's enemies.

Other Australians had friendly encounters with Turkish soldiers, exchanging greetings, chocolate and cigarettes. It was, for most men on both sides, the first time they had seen their enemy face-to-face. The scene, according to one chaplain, was of 'utmost courtesy' between foes.

The truce continued until 4:30 pm. It had been an opportunity to learn more about the other side, including making covert notes on their positions. It was also a welcome break from the fighting and an important health measure that reduced illness.

In late December, the Anzacs were evacuated from the peninsula with very few casualties. By 20 January 1916, all Allied troops had been withdrawn.

Gallipoli was a failure for the Allies, with some 44,000 soldiers killed (from Great Britain, France, India, New Zealand and Australia) in an attempt to take the peninsula from the Ottomans. Australian losses amounted to more than 8,700 dead and almost 18,000 wounded. 7 Victory came at a high price for the Ottoman Empire, which lost at least 85,000 men during the campaign.

The contribution of these original Anzacs is commemorated each year on 25 April.

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Female medical practitioners determined to serve

On the night of 29 May 1918, German zeppelins were spotted in the skies near a British hospital camp at Abbeville, France. German planes had spied the camp earlier in the day, and now, in the dead of night, the Zeppelins used the light of a burning lorry to drop 3 bombs and spray machine-gun fire into the camp.

One of the bombs struck a trench in which some forty female members of the Queen Mary's Army Auxiliary Corps (QMAAC) were sheltering. Eight of the women were killed outright, and more were wounded. One more later died of her injuries.

The Australian doctor Phoebe Chapple was among the women in that trench. Trained and registered in Adelaide, Phoebe had been eager to serve when war broke out in 1914. Her attempts to enlist were refused by the Australian Army, which would not approve women doctors serving. Phoebe, therefore, pursued the only other option available to her – she went to Britain at her own expense to aid the war effort directly. 'I felt that the larger duty did call me overseas', she said later. 8

Phoebe's frustration was not unique. There were 129 women practising as doctors in Australia in 1914. This low number was in part due to societal expectations and in part due to the restrictions on the admission of female medical practitioners, that had only been removed in 1881. None of those 129 female doctors were given permission to join the Australian Army. This resulted in 15 of them travelling overseas to serve in the medical corps of other countries.

Phoebe, for example, enlisted in the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC) in February 1917 and was appointed house surgeon to Cambridge Military Hospital, in Aldershot, with the honorary rank of captain and then major. The work was unrelenting. 'The convoys arrived continually from France, and more than 1,000 patients were accommodated at this busy centre', she recalled. 9

There were still prejudices to overcome. The female doctors were often treated akin to nurses. Phoebe and doctors like her were not formally recognised as officers, even though they were entitled to be. While the British Army was also war forced that to change.

In November 1917, Phoebe was sent to France and confronted firsthand the 'terrible pitch' of the fighting. Air raids were frequent and she and her colleagues often felt helpless to protect their patients. But Phoebe also denied feeling afraid:

I did not feel it so, simply, I suppose, because there was so much to do. You just felt that you were in God's hands, and if you were killed while fulfilling the duty of the moment then it could not be helped, and was no more than those wonderful soldiers were doing incessantly. 10

During the attack on 29 May 1918, Phoebe immediately attended to the 'duty of the moment'. She began to work her way through the trench, tending to the wounded even as the German assault continued. 'There was much work to be done, then, with limited means, to relieve the sufferers. Even telephone communications with headquarters were temporarily cut off'. 11

It was 2 o'clock in the morning when the attack ended.

Dr Phoebe Chapple was later awarded a Military Medal for her gallantry and devotion. She was the first female doctor to be awarded the medal, but some women, while praising Phoebe's actions, were critical that she had not been awarded the Military Cross, as she would have been entitled to, had she been a man: 'Sex qualifications in the winning of such decorations are both illogical and unfair'. 12

Criticism like this, as well as recognition that women were just as able and willing to serve as men, would cause the slow evolution of how women were treated in the military. During the First World War, the British army eventually relaxed their restrictions and allowed female doctors. Australia, on the other hand, did not appoint a female doctor until 1943. Phoebe's example was salutary in this. She was the first Australian female doctor to be awarded the Military Medal, and in fact, the last until 2005, when Captain Carol Vaughan Evans was decorated for gallantry in Rwanda.

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Ghosts of Gallipoli

The Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War stands as a testament to the human cost of conflict, and the enduring legacy of those who fought and died on its shores. Among the cliffs and rocky terrain of the Gallipoli peninsula, tales of the ghosts of fallen soldiers continue to echo through the records of history. This story tells of the haunting legacy of Gallipoli and the impact of war on the collective memory.

Gallipoli, located in present-day Türkiye, was the site of one of the hardest and most futile campaigns of the First World War. From 25 April 1915, soldiers from Australia, New Zealand, Britain, France, and other dominions, fought the Ottoman Empire for control of the Dardanelles Strait, with the Anzacs leaving in December of that year and the British departing in the following January. The unforgiving landscape, scarred by trench warfare and bloodshed, became the final resting place for thousands of soldiers from both sides.

Legend has it that the spirits of those who died on Gallipoli continue to haunt the battlefield. Stories from soldiers serving on Gallipoli reported sightings of ghostly apparitions believed to be the spirits of fallen comrades. These apparitions were said to appear at night, walking among the trenches and battlefields. Their voices carried on the wind like echoes of a bygone era. It was said that the spirits sometimes offered comfort or guidance to the living soldiers. Many people attributed them to the emotional and psychological toll of the war. Some soldiers believed that the spirits of their fallen comrades were watching over them. Others saw the apparitions as a manifestation of their own fears and anxieties.

Despite the horrors of war, these ghostly sightings provided a source of comfort and connection for the soldiers. They reinforced a sense of camaraderie and shared experience. The 'Ghosts of Gallipoli' have since become a part of Australian military folklore. They symbolise the bond between soldiers and the impact of war on the human psyche. As we reflect on the legacy of Gallipoli, may we strive for a future where the echoes of war are replaced by the harmonies of peace.

Despite facing unimaginable hardships, the Anzacs displayed bravery and solidarity in the face of adversity. Their sacrifice has become a cornerstone of our national identity, commemorated annually on Anzac Day.

Each year, on 25 April, Australians and New Zealanders gather to honour the Anzacs and pay tribute to those who died at Gallipoli. Dawn services, wreath-laying ceremonies, and moments of silence serve as solemn reminders of the impact of war. Whether or not you believe in the ghosts of Gallipoli, they remain part of the Anzac experience and are another haunting reminder of the sacrifice of those who died during the ill-fated campaign.

On the morning of the 9th Aug., 1915, with a very small party, Capt. Shout charged down trenches strongly occupied by the enemy, and personally threw four bombs among them, killing eight and routing the remainder. In the afternoon of the same day, from the position gained in the morning, he captured a further length of trench under similar conditions, and continued personally to bomb the enemy at close range under very heavy fire until he was severely wounded, losing his right hand and left eye. This most gallant officer ... succumbed to his injuries. 13

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Little Digger

From the devastation of war comes a story of love, hope and compassion. It is the story of the unexpected friendship between Private Timothy Tovell and a boy named Honore.

On Christmas Day 1918, the men of the Australian Flying Corps No. 4 Squadron sat down to eat a delicious lunch in the airmen's mess at Bickendorf Air Base in Germany. Just as they were about to start their meal, in walked a small, young French boy, clearly cold and hungry, and their lives changed forever.

The boy, Honore, had spent almost 4 years struggling to survive behind the Western Front battlefields. He was unable to recall his age or where he came from. He told the Australians that his father, a French soldier, was killed during the first week of war. Soon after, his mother died in a bombardment. Honore had been rescued by a British artillery officer who was later killed, leaving Honore injured and once more alone.

Taken to a military hospital to recover, Honore was soon discharged and travelled back to the forward area, where he found another British unit. It was with this unit that he travelled to Bickendorf and met the Australians.

The men of No. 4 Squadron took the little boy under their wing, nicknaming him 'Little Digger' or 'Digger'. They looked after him, ensuring he was fed and clothed. Little Digger quickly became a member of the squadron and was bestowed the title of acting corporal. He spent time boxing, catching rats and hitching rides on planes. He shared jokes with the men and soon found himself a new home.

One particular man, Timothy Tovell, became Little Digger's unofficial carer. He was a husband and father who felt an intense need to protect the young French boy. Timothy gave him the name Henri, and the two became inseparable.

Later, news came that the squadron was scheduled to return to Australia. Timothy was determined to take Henri home with him. In a letter to his wife Gertrude, he stated that he didn't think one extra in the family would make that much difference. The French and British authorities were not pleased with this idea and wanted Henri to be placed in an orphanage.

Timothy was determined to keep Henri safe, so he hatched a plan to smuggle the small French boy back to Australia with him.

The day of departure arrived, and little Henri was placed inside an empty oat bag. Remaining secretly on board the troopship, Henri successfully arrived in England. On 6 May 1919, bound for Australia, Henri was again concealed from the authorities, this time in a basket of sporting equipment. He remained hidden until the ship was too far out to sea to be turned around.

During the journey home, it was discovered that the Premier of Queensland, Tom Ryan, was a passenger onboard the ship. After hearing Henri's story and his friendship with Timothy, the Premier organised the relevant paperwork for Henri to enter Australia.

Together, Timothy and Henri travelled to the Tovell family home in Jandowae, Queensland, where Henri became a much-loved and valued family member.

In 1926, Henri relocated to Melbourne to join the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). However, on 23 May 1928, tragedy struck. Henri was involved in a motor vehicle accident when his motorbike collided with a taxi. He died the following day.

In recognition of his determination, Henri was buried with military honours at Fawkner Cemetery in Melbourne.

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White feathers

During the First World War, recruiters used a variety of ways to encourage men to enlist. Advertising aimed to attract individuals to service through themes of patriotism, honour, manliness, mateship – even vengeance. They often held an implicit warning that failing to enlist was equal to betrayal, evidence of cowardice and even selfishness.

In England, an ageing and long-retired admiral decided to make that implicit warning explicit. His idea adopted a tactic used by the suffragettes in the decade prior. In August 1914, he directed 30 women to confront and present any young man who was 'idling and loafing', with a white feather. This symbol of cowardice was intended to be a mark on that man. It would publicly humiliate him. They hoped that in receiving a white feather, a man would be shamed into enlisting. The other hope was that the prospect of receiving a white feather might spur other men to enlist.

The confrontational tactic spread. In December 1914, a Wesleyan preacher in Australia called for men who had not enlisted to be given red flannel petticoats and white feathers. This way, they could be distinguished from those 'who had taken up arms in the time of the Empire's need'. 14 It is presumed that the preacher, like many others, wanted all able-bodied men to enlist.

Private Aubrey Campling was serving in Gallipoli as part of the 5th Field Ambulance when he wrote to his father saying 'that petticoats and white feathers were all the cowards deserved'. 15

Not everyone thought the white feather tactic appropriate. The Minister for Defence at the time, Senator George Pearce, thought it highly inappropriate. The Sydney Morning Herald suggested it impeded the war effort. There is little evidence to suggest the white feathers were successful and much to suggest that it was offensive. 16

Soldiers on leave, wearing civilian clothes, were indignant when they were accosted and told they were cowards – soldiers recovering from injuries especially so. 'Feeling on the matter', said one soldier who had been wounded in action and given a feather, 'is so strong that several recipients have cleared out of the force in disgust'. 17

Men who had been rejected for service experienced mixed responses to the campaign. Some believed the tactic to be pointless. 'I received a feather last week, and I am over 56!' wrote one. For others, the public humiliation could be devastating. In 1915, white feather women taunted a Melbourne taxi driver who had been rejected for service because of a heart condition. The taxi driver took his own life, supposedly on account of the 'misery' they had inflicted.

Advocates of increasing Australia's military commitment saw little to regret, especially if the tactics caused a man to enlist and 'do his duty'. The white feather also became a symbol used to smear those who opposed the introduction of conscription.

The white feather campaign was, however, ultimately ineffective. During this period, Australia voted twice against conscription, and use of the white feather lost favour. By the Second World War, few thought it anything other than unacceptable moral blackmail.

Despite the changed sentiment towards the white feather, shame remained a potent emotion for recruiters, as posters from the period suggest.

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Tour de Anzac

Australians have had a long association with cycling. From the 1860s, Australians have embraced bicycles for travel, work and leisure. In the 1890s, with the introduction of the 'safety bicycle', cycling became increasingly popular as more Australians began to ride. Bicycles, or 'bikes' as they are known, became cheaper, safer and more comfortable than earlier models. Many Australians enjoyed the freedom, functionality and independence bike riding brought.

Bikes sometimes replaced the use of horses as a versatile and efficient form of transport that required far less upkeep and attention. Bikes were ideal for personal and commercial transport. They were used to deliver telegrams and postal services and became part of daily rural life.

The First World War saw the humble bike play a pivotal role.

In 1914, Jacob Edwin (Jack) Hindhaugh started the war riding a horse, yet by the war's end in 1918, a bike had replaced it.

Not long into his campaign with the Light Horse Brigade, Jack sustained an injury on the Gallipoli peninsula. He remained on duty but was evacuated 2 months later due to illness.

Whilst convalescing in Heliopolis, Jack was appointed to lead Australia's 1st Division Cyclist Company. He recorded in his diary, 'Went over to the 4th Light Horse, saw Stan, he said that the command of the Cyclist Corps is to be offered to me and I was to see Col. Foott in Cairo. Went in and had a talk to him. Have accepted it and I will leave with the 1st Division for France'. 18

It was the first time that cyclists were used in Australia's military history. The men were recruited from reinforcements for the 4th Light Horse Regiment. If you could ride a horse, it was assumed that you could also ride a bike. The cyclists first entered the war with the 1st Division south of Armentières, France, in mid-April 1916.

The bikes they rode were made by the Birmingham Small Arms Company and sent from England to the front line. The soldiers were also given a Short Magazine Lee Enfield (SMLE) .303 calibre rifle and were required to wear the standard AIF uniform. The men would attach the rifle to the down tube of their bike or carry it slung across their back.

The soldiers of Australia's cyclist battalions were engaged in a range of duties. The men worked tirelessly, carrying special messages and supplying ammunition, medical supplies and food to the front line. Another vital role of the cyclist battalion was to conduct reconnaissance missions, identifying the best and safest possible route. They were also called upon to conduct military police work, control traffic and construct light railways. At times, the cyclist soldiers guarded prisoners.

The life of a cyclist soldier was not without risk. The cyclists were often in similarly dangerous situations as their fellow soldiers.

Two Australian soldiers, Private Allan Foster McConnell and Private Charles Robert Richardson, suffered minor injuries, and their bikes minor damage, when a British cavalryman galloped into their riding group, knocking them both from their bikes. Then, on 30 September 1917, whilst laying cable near Zonnebeke in Belgium, Allan suffered a severe injury when he was struck by shrapnel in the face, throat and shoulder. Allan was able to recover from most of his injuries, but the shrapnel caused permanent blindness. He returned to Australia and assisted in the establishment of the Australian Blinded Soldiers' Society.

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Diversity amongst those who serve

At the time of the First World War, Christianity was the dominant faith in Australia. Almost 95% of the country professed to follow a Christian denomination. A similar proportion of those who enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) also identified themselves as followers of the Christian faith.

The smaller number of service people who were non-Christian had remarkably different experiences to their Christian peers. Usually from other cultural and ethnic backgrounds, they encountered prejudices and obstacles that their fellow Christian soldiers did not.

In 1914, Australia's population was estimated to be about 4.95 million, of which just over half were male. Three-quarters of the population were born in Australia, and most were of English, Scottish or Irish descent. 19

When the war broke out, there were strict enlistment standards in the Australian armed services. The standards determined whether someone could enlist based on their age, physical characteristics such as height, weight and chest measurements, as well as cultural backgrounds. People of non-European background, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, were prohibited from military service.

Some men changed their names or fabricated documents in an attempt to mislead recruiters. While the enlistment standards were firmly enforced in the early days of the war, recruiters became more relaxed as the war went on and the need for more men increased.

Many German Australians faced discrimination and ridicule and had their loyalty to 'King and Country' questioned. Some people were concerned that the allegiance of soldiers of other faiths or cultural backgrounds might not be to Australia or the British Empire.

General Sir John Monash, a prominent and celebrated soldier, was disdained by some because of his Prussian background and Jewish faith. He rose above the discrimination, and through his actions and leadership at Gallipoli and across the Western Front, he became widely recognised as an exceptional commander.

Dalbert Hallenstein was a German-born Jewish man who worked in a prominent Melbourne tannery before the war. Dalbert had military experience as a member of the Citizens Military Forces and the cadets. In 1915, he enlisted in the AIF as a 2nd Lieutenant in the 5th Battalion. He left Australia after telling his family and friends that he hoped he would do them proud: 'At any rate he would have a good try. He hoped to get away and do what he could and get back again amongst them'. 20

Dalbert served in Egypt, Gallipoli, and the Western Front. He was wounded in 1917 and was killed in action the following year, in Peronne, France. His superiors mourned his death, praising him as 'a brave man, and a capable officer', and saying they deeply deplored his loss. 21

The strict enlistment standards, at times, forced inaccurate record-keeping, which means that it can be difficult to identify service people of non-Christian faith in the First World War. Research has shown that at least 19 Sikhs are believed to have served overseas in the AIF and the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF).

Born in India, Hazara Singh saw military service in Afghanistan before emigrating to Australia. He worked as a storekeeper in Brungle, NSW, before enlisting in the AIF at age 33. During the war, Hazara served in France as part of the 13th Battalion. He initially ate beef whilst on active service, possibly through necessity as there were limited food options for soldiers. Hazara became ill and was discharged in 1917. He sought to re-enlist 6 months later and was accepted at the recommendation of one of his officers: 'He has seen much active service, is very intelligent, and keen. I think it would be a great pity to lose a man of this stamp'. 22 Hazara served for another year in the military before being discharged again.

Cassim 'Cass' Mahomet, meanwhile, was one of a number of Muslims who enlisted and served in the AIF. He was a vaudeville performer with an Indian background, and authorities initially refused to enlist him because they believed he was of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander heritage.

During another attempt, recruiters refused him on the grounds that he was Turkish. It has been suggested that Cass' parents were also opposed to his enlistment plans should he be forced to fight other Muslims during the Gallipoli campaign in Türkiye. Cass successfully enlisted in 1916, when he was 21, this time by stating that he was Catholic. Cass was dispatched overseas as part of the 10th Battalion, where he became well-known for organising concert parties and shows on the Western Front. By the end of the war, he had become a sergeant major and, according to one fellow soldier, had thrown 'aside all barriers of caste and religion, and become a dinkum Aussie'. 23

The common thread of these stories is that Australians of different religious faiths and cultural backgrounds answered their nation's call and gave faithful service. In doing so, they showed that religion was not an obstacle to patriotism.

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Families who serve

The colonisation of Australia by the British from 1788 onwards was momentous for the First Nations people of the land. The effects of colonisation were many and widespread. In some instances, conflict immediately arose between the settlers and the local Aboriginal people. The warriors of the land fought to ward off the settlers to protect their culture and way of life. A fierce fighting spirit and an abundance of courage underscored resistance by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.

In the 20th century, First Nations people continued to show the fighting spirit and courage of their ancestors through service in Australia's armed forces. Those who served did so despite living with discrimination and inequality in their everyday lives. First Nations soldiers served with distinction in the First and Second World Wars. Their dedication to fighting for Australia was no less than that of the non-Indigenous soldiers who served with them.

One Aboriginal family, in particular, embodied the warrior spirit in its service history. Five brothers of the Lovett family, Gunditjmara people from south-western Victoria, served across the First and Second World Wars. Alfred, Frederick, Leonard, Edward and Herbert Lovett from Lake Condah served in France and Palestine during the First World War. They defied the odds by all returning home safely at the end of the war. It is a testament to their characters that they chose to put themselves in harm's way for a nation that did not recognise them as citizens.

On 27 July 1915, Alfred Lovett enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force, ready to serve his country. Then aged 35, Alfred was married with 2 children and was a jockey and horse breaker by trade. With much to lose, he embarked for training in the Middle East before participating in fighting at Pozières and Mouquet Farm in France.

Alfred was soon followed into armed service by 4 of his brothers: Edward, Leonard, Herbert, and Frederick. Each enlisted despite news of the dangers that they would face overseas. At the time Frederick enlisted – in May 1917, having already been excused from service – Alfred had been wounded in France and was convalescing in a British hospital, and Leonard and Edward were in France with their battalions.

The 5 Lovett brothers started a family tradition of service. All 5 returned to Australia at the war's end. When war broke out again in 1939, the Lovetts returned to answer their nation's call.

Despite being in their 40s and 50s, Leonard, Edward, Frederick and Herbert re-enlisted alongside their youngest brother, Samuel, who was then aged 36. Leonard's daughter, Alice, served with the Women's Auxiliary Australian Air Force, while Edward's daughter Sarah served in the Australian Women's Army Service. Samuel's son Murray served as well.

The Lovetts continued to serve in Australia's military in the years that followed. Leonard's son, also named Leonard, served during the Korean War and Alice's son, Mervyn, served in the Vietnam War. Frederick's grandson, Ricky, served in both East Timor – now Timor-Leste – and Afghanistan as a member of the Australian Army. Nine additional extended Lovett family members are known to have served in Australia's military.

Remarkably, all members of the Lovett family returned home safely after their service.

What also reinforces the generosity and courage of the Lovett family's service is the prejudice that its members continued to face in the country for which they had fought so nobly. Under soldier settlement schemes devised after each World War, returned soldiers were eligible for allotments of farmland. But authorities denied Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander soldiers, such as the Lovetts, any access to the scheme. The Lovetts saw their traditional lands in Western Victoria carved up and given away.

The Lovett family's tradition of military service is widely believed to be without parallel. It was in recognition of the family's ongoing and singular service to the country that, in 2000, the Department of Veterans' Affairs premises in Woden, Canberra, was renamed 'Lovett Tower'.

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Mail deliveries for the First and Second World Wars

In the 21st century, much of our communication uses digital platforms to send and receive data in ways and speeds not imagined in the early 20th century. This technology is especially important for Australian defence members serving overseas, providing immediate contact with family and friends. The speed of today's digital communication supports contact and connection, a relief when so far from home.

Australians who served overseas during the First and Second World Wars did not have the luxury of real-time communication with their friends and loved ones. News and letters from home were mostly hand-written and delivered via land, air and sea transportation. During the First World War, postal services relied on trucks and ships to transport mail. Postal services in the Second World War added aircraft to the transport systems. In both wars, the speed of delivery was much slower than today, and service personnel waited weeks or months for their letters.

In the First World War, Australians serving overseas were often frustrated by the waiting times to receive mail. Getting mail to the troops in Europe and the Middle East was a challenging operation, and the delays affected the men. Australian soldier George Leslie Makin said the following in a letter to his mother in January 1915:

I don't know what the authorities are doing with our letters. There must be tens of thousands of them somewhere. If we do not get a mail very shortly, I am afraid there will be a lot of bad feeling among the men. 24

The delivery of mail to troops overseas during the Second World War improved with the use of aircraft, however, getting mail to the front lines still took substantial time in comparison to today's postal and digital options. Transporting mail was made complex by enemy activity and the ever-changing locations of those on the battlefields. Military personnel also faced geographical challenges to deliver mail to troops in locations such as the deserts of North Africa and the jungles of New Guinea. For the many Australians who served in the United Kingdom, embedded with the Royal Forces, their multiple locations added additional difficulties to the mail delivery service. The Royal Air Force's Bomber Command, for example, had bases scattered across eastern England and the men flew where needed at short notice.

Enemy spy networks were a constant threat to the Allied forces. Australian service men and women writing to family and friends back home had another challenge to face. Their letters had to be checked and censored, if required.

Censoring the letters aimed to protect sensitive military information. Careless references to operations, plans or military bases had to be avoided. A seemingly innocent remark in a letter to home could have serious consequences.

Australians serving overseas, conscious of the need to maintain military security, had to accept that their letters to home had to be quite plain. The work of the military censors was essential, even if it wasn't always appreciated by some troops.

In today's world, we take digital communication for granted. We can be in touch with friends, family or colleagues in an instant. Enormous amounts of information are carried by digital networks each day. Australians who served in the First and Second World Wars relied upon mail systems that hadn't changed much since the 1800s. The complexities of those wars brought new challenges to sending and receiving mail. Australians at the front line and at home benefited from the men and women who successfully overcame the massive logistical challenges of wartime communication.

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Australian sailors at D-Day

Hundreds of Australians served on British and Allied ships during the Second World War. Many of them took part in D-Day, the biggest seaborne invasion in history.

Australians participated in a variety of different ways during the D-Day invasion. These included as commanders of Royal Navy ships, submarines, and other watercraft. Among them was Lieutenant Kenneth Hudspeth. A teacher when war broke out, Kenneth joined the Volunteer Reserve of the Royal Australian Navy. He received training in anti-submarine warfare before sailing from Australia for the United Kingdom. During his service, Kenneth held numerous roles and spent 15 months as part of the perilous North Atlantic convoys.

In 1943, Kenneth received command of an X-Craft midget submarine. He participated in an attack on German shipping the following year and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) for his role in this action.

Kenneth, as commander of one of 2 midget submarines for Operation Gambit, sailed from England on 2 June to mark the route for the Allied armada from England to the beaches of Normandy. They positioned the craft near the beaches where troops from Britain and Canada were to land. One submarine on the left flank and another on the right marked the limits of the Anglo-Canadian invasion area. Bad weather forced a one-day postponement of the invasion, scheduled for 5 June. Kenneth and his team stayed submerged in place for an extra 24 hours so that they could successfully complete their mission. The 26-year-old was awarded a Bar to his DSC for 'gallantry, skill, determination and undaunted devotion to duty'. 25

Once the landing operations began on 6 June, Kenneth and his crew transported scouting parties to and from the Normandy beaches to gather intelligence about German defences. It was risky work that involved his X-Craft manoeuvring in shallow water without detection, and he was awarded a second Bar to his DSC as a result. This made Hudspeth the first Australian naval officer to be awarded a DSC with 2 Bars.

Australian Sub-Lieutenant Richard Pirrie was also part of the Normandy invasion. He wrote to his parents and brothers the night before the landings:

Well, my dears, the pressure is on now and as soon as the weather improves we sail for the greatest event in the history of the world... By the time you receive this you will surely have heard some of the bare details. This is the greatest Armada that ever was formed. A colossal feat of organisation; the product of years of planning and hard work. 26

The next day, Richard steered a landing craft close to the coastline, in full view of the enemy, to direct gunfire onto the German positions. Gunners targeted Richard's vessel, and he was killed in the ensuing battle, receiving a posthumous decoration for his bravery.

Allied casualties from the D-Day landings numbered some 10,300, including more than 4,400 dead. By 30 June, more than 850,000 men had landed on the Normandy shores.

The war in Europe continued until 7 May 1945, when Germany signed an unconditional surrender. Australians continued fighting in the war in the Pacific until 14 August 1945, when Japan also agreed to surrender.

Royal Australian Navy Sea Power Centre

Codebreakers

Tucked away in a quiet, leafy street in Brisbane is a home with a notable history. Built in 1885 by a wealthy bank manager, 'Nyrambla' has since had many owners and residents. Perhaps the most notable, however, is the Australian Government, which requisitioned this grand, spacious, and attractive house for use as a top-secret military facility during the Second World War.

From 1942 to 1945, Nyrambla was headquarters of the Central Bureau of Intelligence, a joint Australian and American signal intelligence operation. Its task was to intercept, decipher, and assess Japanese military and diplomatic communications.

When the Central Bureau moved into Nyrambla, the war was in its most desperate days. Japan reigned supreme in Asia and the Pacific. Her troops had taken Singapore and shattered the illusion of British security in the region. They had begun the war against the United States by raiding Pearl Harbor and had since forced the Americans out of the Philippines. In Australia, the fear of an invasion had become very real.

The Central Bureau was one way that the Allies could regain the upper hand. Over an exhausting 3 years, the men and women who went into Nyrambla listened to an enormous amount of radio transmissions and intercepted signals. They cracked Japanese codes and analysed communications traffic to astonishing and significant effect.

Personnel in the Central Bureau worked using primitive cipher and decrypting machines, including the IBM Tabulator. They worked around the clock intercepting messages, decrypting them, retyping them, and dispatching them around the world.

Among their successes was their interception of messages containing the itinerary of Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. In 1943, the Japanese naval commander-in-chief was touring Japanese bases in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. The Central Bureau identified his route, timing, and the plane he would travel on. This information enabled the US to intercept the plane. It was shot down, and Admiral Yamamoto, who planned the Pearl Harbor attack, was killed.

Also significant was the Central Bureau's insights into Japanese radio traffic. The Central Bureau intercepted and decrypted a considerable amount of Japanese weather reports. Some thought these were worthless, but those in the Central Bureau saw 2 reasons to value the reports. Firstly, the reports meant that the Allies no longer needed to deploy weather balloons or conduct reconnaissance missions to ascertain weather conditions for themselves. Secondly, and more importantly, they realised that the reports were also a forewarning of Allied bases, ships, and locations likely to be attacked by Japanese air raids.

At the start of the Second World War, Australia did not have personnel with signal intelligence skills and knowledge. Instead, it largely relied on Britain to provide the information. The war, and the creation of the Central Bureau, spurred Australia to redress this. It recruited and trained

codebreakers, cryptoanalysts and traffic analysts. It built links with US and British signals intelligence operations in the Pacific and Southeast Asia, laying the framework for the modern 'Five Eyes' signals intelligence system.

As with all intelligence operations, personnel of the Central Bureau performed their work with strict secrecy. There was no publicity attached to their efforts and little to no recognition of their achievements and contribution to the war effort. Today, a small plaque at the entrance to Nyrambla provides the only clue of the Central Bureau's work and a reminder of what made its work so effective: 'Their strength lay in silence'. 27

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Ginger Meggs Salvage Corps to the rescue

In 1921, James 'Jimmy' Bancks brought the character 'Ginger Meggs' to life. Ginger Meggs was a popular Australian cartoon that quickly captured Australia's imagination. The mischievous, red-headed, skinny kid with an adventurous streak became a household name. Ginger Meggs transcended time and place.

During the Second World War, many Australians took the stories and antics of Ginger Meggs' character with them into overseas service. Back in Australia, Ginger Meggs encouraged and inspired Australian schoolchildren to chip in and help in the war effort.

The Second World War had an impact on almost every man, woman and child in Australia. It was a time of uncertainty. Many children had family members serving overseas. Children worried about their loved ones and whether they would see them again. For some children it was a time of adventure, but for all it was a time of change.

Ginger Meggs was a constant source of strength and amusement during turbulent times. The cartoon character's thirst for adventure provided an attitude and steadfastness for many Australian soldiers. Some airmen painted images of Ginger Meggs on their aircraft's nose and sides. These pictures were 'good luck' signs and said something about the pilot or crew. They represented the Aussie spirit – a spirit of battlers and knockabout larrikins, just like Ginger Meggs.

Back at home, the patriotic call to action was strong and children equally wanted to do their part. Girls helped their mothers by knitting socks, jumpers and scarves. Boys often took on jobs their fathers usually did around the home, such as mowing lawns, trimming hedges and fixing fences. Salvage collection was a popular way of contributing to the war effort.

Students and staff from State School 483 in Essendon formed the Ginger Meggs Salvage Corps. The students used handmade billy carts or hand trucks to collect paper, cardboard, rubber and aluminium from the neighbourhood to be recycled. Other students would go to school on a Saturday to help sort the recycled items. Each 'truck' had a captain and up to 5 helpers. The students wore armbands and pulled carts with the image of their mascot, the popular cartoon character Ginger Meggs. These students, like so many others around the country, epitomised the 'all in' approach of Australians.

Members of the Ginger Meggs Salvage Corps also answered the specific call of the soldiers. After the Japanese seized Malaya in February 1942, the Allied forces faced a critical shortage of rubber. The Ginger Meggs Salvage Corps was ready. The volunteers searched the streets, backyards and sheds on the hunt for rubber.

As members of the Ginger Meggs Salvage Corps scoured the local neighbourhoods, the sound of their voices filled the streets. The children sang songs and chanted poems inspired by Ginger Meggs and his adventures. One can only imagine that the sound of these spirited young voices would have brought a smile to those who heard them. Although not able to serve like their fathers, uncles and older brothers, these children exemplified the Aussie spirit during the war.

Ginger Meggs, the mischievous, red-headed larrikin, was an identifiable and relatable character. He inspired both adults and children alike, connecting generations of Australians. During the Second World War, his antics brought humour to desperate and dangerous situations. Tristan Bancks, the great-great nephew of the creator, said Ginger Meggs, 'was used to make people feel good, even though the news was grim, he was an escape from the real world'. 28

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Sparrow Force

In February 1941, the Australian Government, along with Dutch and British officials, agreed to work together to defend Timor against the possibility of a Japanese invasion. Timor, a small island just over 700 km from Darwin, was an important place to defend. Many believed that should the Japanese gain control of the island, it would increase the chances of attacks or invasion of Australia.

At the time, Timor was a nation divided by political and national control. The Portuguese controlled the east and maintained neutrality, while the Dutch controlled the west. The Allied officials decided that the defending troops would fall under Australia's command. The Australian Army was called to defend Timor, divided into smaller units, known as the Bird Forces. One of the units was called 'Sparrow Force' and theirs is a story of resilience, adaptability and resourcefulness.

Three months after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Timor was invaded. The Japanese forces were swift, large and powerful, attacking by land, sea and sky. The soldiers of the 2/40th Battalion, part of Sparrow Force, were severely outnumbered and poorly equipped. Some Australians were killed while the remaining soldiers were taken as prisoners of war and housed at Usapa Besar, the camp built by Sparrow Force before the invasion. The Allied troops were forced to surrender on 23 February 1942.

Meanwhile, the 2/2nd Independent Company, part of Sparrow Force in East Timor (the Portuguese territory), conducted a fighting retreat. The soldiers dispersed into smaller groups and took cover in the rugged mountains to respond with guerrilla warfare. Guerrilla warfare is often referred to as 'hit-and-run' style of fighting, taking the enemy by surprise and disappearing as quickly and unexpectedly as they came. 29 The Australians posted lookouts and sent out small patrols that would engage in short, sharp bursts of fighting before returning to the relative safety of the forest. The East Timorese and Portuguese local people assisted the Australians by supplying food and valuable information. Sparrow Force successfully interrupted Japanese communication lines and demoralised their troops. The men of Sparrow Force remained resolute.

As the guerrilla war continued, establishing reliable communications with Australia became critical. Members of Sparrow Force worked for nearly 2 months to build a radio transceiver that would allow them to send and receive messages with Australia. Signalman Max Loveless from the 2nd Independent Company was instrumental in manufacturing the transceiver. In a small dark shed, he disassembled and stripped parts from broken sets, gathered wires and built coils. The men salvaged what they could and even used a Portuguese radio manual to identify the correct colour-coded wiring.

By mid-April of 1942, all parts were ready to be connected and attempts to communicate commenced. Max sent a message in Morse code. It was unsuccessful. The team waited 3 days and tried again. Disappointed, the men heard nothing. Unbeknownst to them, their transmission had been successful and reached Darwin. Encouraged, the Darwin radio team instructed all transmitter stations across Australia to stay off the air to ensure they could receive more transmissions from Timor.

The next evening, Max tried again. The message was received in Darwin. However, in a period of heightened suspicion of potential spies and misdirection by the enemy, doubt was raised over its authenticity. Was the message a trick from the Japanese? The Darwin station responded, asking the soldiers to identify themselves. Max's prompt and accurate response confirmed that the call was legitimate and that Australian soldiers were still operating on Timor. In the week that followed, Sparrow Force was resupplied with equipment and food, and soon afterwards, reinforcements from the 2/4th Independent Company arrived.

The transceiver was given the nickname 'Winnie the War Winner'. The soldiers involved said that the radio was named in honour of Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at that time.

Nevertheless, even with communication and new supplies, by December 1942, the situation had become too dangerous for the troops to remain, and the Australians were evacuated over the following 2 months.

An uncommon experience for Australians in the Second World War, the men of Sparrow Force experienced guerrilla operations in enemy-held territory for an extended time. What drew these men together was their resolve, determination, ingenuity and fight for survival.

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Spies in the sky

By 1944, Allied leaders believed that control of the skies was necessary for victory in any ground battle. In planning the enormous ground invasion of northern France, now known as D-Day, Allied military leaders devoted considerable time to establishing that control.

The British and US air forces, in which some Australian personnel served, carried out attacks on German-held air bases, factories, repair depots, and airfields. More importantly, they attacked transport targets like railway junctions and bridges to prevent German reinforcements reaching the battlefield. The destruction of German air power mostly happened in aerial battles, often far from northern France. They promptly counter-attacked German attempts to bomb ports, bases, and infrastructure in England.

John Herington, official historian of the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), wrote, 'This mixture of staunch defence and virile pugnacity produced an effect far more valuable than the sum of every individual encounter.' 30 He added, 'it led to an almost complete failure of German reconnaissance in the months preceding the invasion'.31

The inability of Germans to gain information about the Allied preparations for the invasion was mimicked across the English Channel. The Germans could not hamper the Allies as they surveilled northern France.

In the 6 weeks leading up to D-Day, English and US aircraft made constant sorties over the French coast. They photographed enemy supply dumps, headquarters, and communications. They photographed natural features, possible landing sites for aircraft, supply areas and bridges. Invasion beaches were also photographed at high tide and low tide.

These flights demanded a high degree of airmanship, patience, and accuracy. They also required a higher-than-usual amount of courage. This was because the air forces used Spitfires modified to fly faster and reach higher altitudes. The modifications, as Australian RAF pilot Stuart Davis recalled, had involved a very serious trade-off:

'People think flying Spitfires was wonderful', he said later, 'but I was on photographic reconnaissance, which didn't have any guns, didn't have any armour plating, and it wasn't all that fun!' 32

To lessen the danger to his aircraft, David adopted an erratic routine:

Instead of going straight along and doing them, and curling off and coming round and doing another one … I'd start at the very end and do a little bit, then disappear, and then come up right down the back. 33

Manoeuvres like this were not available to other pilots in different planes. In May 1944, Flight Lieutenant Douglas Sampson, flying a Supermarine Spitfire Mk XI, had to fly at an incredibly low altitude over a beach that Allied military leaders planned to use for one of the landings during the invasion.

As his plane skated through the sky, a specially modified camera fitted in the fuselage behind Sampson's cockpit snapped away. The resulting images of the beach and underwater defences were so sharp, Sampson said later that 'the prickles on the barbed wire could be clearly seen'. 34

These missions were invaluable to the Allied war effort. WA Farmer, a journalist for Melbourne's Herald newspaper, wrote afterwards that Sampson's colleagues had nicknamed that beach after him because his pictures had enabled the US troops to land there on D-Day and locate every enemy strongpoint on it. It helped them take Utah Beach by the time night fell.

The 'spies in the sky' paved the way for success on D-Day and, ultimately, the Allied victory in Europe. Moreover, their missions renewed the truth of that axiom about air control and ground battles.

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Spring race meeting

Held by the Northern Picnic Race Club on Saturday 18 September 1943, the Army's spring race meeting was the first for the Northern Territory club.

This meeting was likely a welcome outlet for the soldiers based in the Northern Territory at the time. The war was in the islands of the Pacific, and northern Australia was subject to Japanese air raids. The event brought the community and the army together to celebrate the much-loved horse races, provide some respite from the war and raise funds for Australian prisoners of war (POWs).

The meeting was sponsored by Major General Arthur Allen, with all committee roles going to serving army officers. The racehorses were all station stock horses loaned by the Herbert brothers of Koolpinyah and Humpty Doo Stations and renamed for the occasion.

Reflecting the true spirit and humour of Aussie diggers at the time, the names given to the individual races, the horses, jockeys and stables were re-imagined and themed around the war and the army. Race names included 8th Army Gallop, Victory Purse and Leave Welter.

Dubbed 'POW Handicap', the first race was run at 1030 hours. Horses' names included 'Coming Home' (by Aussies out of the stables of Italy) and 'Welcome' (by Parcels out of Red Cross). Later races had horses named 'Surprise' (by Parachute out of a Plane) and 'Reveille' (by 6 O'Clock out of Bed), and even 'Spring' (by New Life out of Mother Earth). There were some very creative names indeed!

In July 1944, the same racing club held another race meeting in aid of the Prisoners of War Fund. The Kalgoorlie Miner newspaper reported a large attendance, with funds raised in the order of £2,000. By all accounts, the race meeting was a popular event.

While horse racing was not possible for those serving overseas, the respite from their current conditions was still very much needed.

The prisoners of the now infamous Sandakan camp in North Borneo marked Melbourne Cup day in their own way. An improvised winner's cup was made from bully beef tins, and a track was set up between officers' tents. The track was divided into 30 squares, and the men progressed according to a number drawn from a deck of cards. The first man to reach the end was the winner. In 1943, having been moved to a new camp, the prisoners again held their 'Melbourne Cup'. Using the same method for advancing along the track, bookies took bets for the winners.

Australian prisoners at the Sime Road camp in Singapore adopted their own version of the Melbourne Cup. They fashioned a winner's cup out of coconuts with a handmade aluminium plaque naming the winner. For this event, the prisoners raced frogs that were placed in the centre of a circle and the first one to cross the line won. The frog races were a popular source of amusement for the prisoners in the camps.

By 1944, there were approximately 28,500 Australian prisoners of war in Europe and the Far East and 22,000 prisoners of war in the Pacific region. At the time, reported funds from the races in the Northern Territory contributed to prisoners of war by the Australian Red Cross Society was in excess £1,000,000. These funds were used to supply food and comforts to prisoners. Australians were encouraged to spare what they could. A newspaper article noting 'everything is being done to provide Australian POWs with further help'. 35

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Official war artists

Our history of war is shaped by the experiences of those who serve. Australia deploys artists to conflict zones to capture and retell the stories of the people there.

The Official War Art Scheme began during the First World War and continues to this day. Several of the nation's most well-known painters and cartoonists have been among the more than 60 official war artists.

For several weeks or months, artists are 'embedded' with the Australian armed forces. They use a range of media and styles to produce works that they believe best represent the conflict or operation. Their art also expresses their viewpoints and areas of interest in the subject. This might include battle paintings, portraits of individual servicemen and servicewomen, and sketches of military equipment like tanks and airplanes.

Frank Norton was one of only 2 artists commissioned to record the experiences of the Australians fighting in Korea. Over 17,000 Australians participated in the war between 1950 and 1953; 340 died and over 1,200 were wounded. Australia was a member of the United Nations force of 21 countries that defended South Korea from North Korea.

Frank had served as an official artist in the Second World War, documenting the activities of the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF).

While in Korea, Frank was attached to the RAN. He was on 3 different Australian ships over 5 months in 1952, patrolling the Korean West Coast. Unlike during the Second World War, Frank did not observe any significant naval engagements. He did witness naval bombardments and airstrikes against enemy positions along the coast, and there was always a risk from airstrikes, enemy artillery, and mines.

Frank captured the Korean coast and its weather, the activities of the crews while on duty, and RAN and UN Forces ships in his artwork at the time. He was captivated by the size, might, and technological prowess of the navy ships.

The artist sometimes found it difficult to tolerate the cramped conditions on the ships, especially during hot and muggy weather. He drew a typhoon that he witnessed while at sea. Cloudy skies and torrential rain were also common themes in his artwork.

Frank's work expresses admiration for the crew and their daily routines. His portrayals of seamen included them maintaining the ship's engine, moving mail between ships, and cleaning the decks. He also sketched moments of leisure, such as a sailor reading by himself on deck.

The Frank Norton collection from Korea includes more than 50 works that serve as a valuable representation of sailors' experiences during that time period. The artworks are held by the Australian War Memorial, which also manages the Official War Art Scheme.

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Operation Sabre

Max Shean was a former engineering student in Perth whose service in the Royal Navy during the Second World War led him to command a mission, striking at a vulnerable nerve of the Japanese war effort.

The mission Max was tasked with made use of the unique capabilities of the X-class midget submarines. Fifteen metres long and diesel- powered, these were designed for operations in shallow waters.

The work was dangerous and Max, who by 1944 was commanding his own vessel, had his fair share of brushes with death.

That November, Max took command of a new midget submarine, XE-4. His wife Mary broke a bottle of Australian champagne over its bow to unofficially christen it Exiter. A month later, Max, his crew, and the submarine were en route to the Pacific. There, they were given responsibility for Operation Sabre.

At the time, Allied leaders were unable to intercept Japanese communications sent using the undersea cables that connected countries and continents. They had decided to destroy the cables connecting Saigon with Hong Kong and Singapore.

Their aim was to force the Japanese to use wireless communications systems, which the Allies could intercept. The operation was considered urgent because of the US' imminent use of nuclear weapons. 'The president wanted to know whether the Japanese were considering the terms of the surrender', Max recalled, 'He couldn't wait to know through the diplomatic channels'. 36

Operation Sabre was a difficult mission from the start. The cables lay beneath waters controlled by the Japanese. Finding them would be laborious. Sending divers into the murky depths with rudimentary equipment would make them vulnerable to the sea conditions and put them at significant risk of drowning. Cutting the cables, which were woven copper wire wrapped in layers of natural latex, rubber and steel as thick as a person's wrist, would not be easy.

Max and his crew prepared for the operation in Hervey Bay, Queensland. Max drew on his engineering background and designed a grapnel hook that could snag the cables off the seabed. Another colleague manufactured it. All were aware of the risks when 2 submariners died during the preparations.

Late in July, they were dispatched to the Indochina (or South China) Sea. On 30 July, Max and his crew began making their way to the mouth of the Mekong River in Vietnam. Using dead reckoning and occasional sightings of the nearby lighthouse to confirm their position, they began trawling the seabed.

It took almost 24 hours for the grapnel hook to snag on the first cable. Sub-Lieutenant Kenneth Briggs, an Australian in the Royal Navy, entered the water. 'I couldn't see much,' he said later, 'It was in the mud. But I could feel it. I ducked back to the submarine and got the cutters, took it back and – snip, snip – I cut a piece out of the cable'. 37

It took 2 hours to locate the second cable. The mud hampered Sub-Lieutenant Adam Bergius, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, and his cable cutter failed. Adam re-entered XE-4 to exchange it, took a short rest, and went back into the water. Eventually, he returned with a foot of the core copper wire in hand.

Operation Sabre successfully forced the Japanese to switch to radio communications that the Allies could now overhear. It gave them vital intelligence after the nuclear bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The officer who debriefed Max marvelled at what they had done: 'It seems you've carried out the perfect operation'. 38 Others agreed. Max and the other crew were decorated for their gallantry, perseverance, and skill, though Max modestly downplayed Operation Sabre. As he put it, 'it was a bit easier than blowing up ships!' 39

AWM 019164

Indigenous Elders in the Defence Force

Today, each branch of the armed services benefits from the advice of appointed First Nations Elders – veterans of considerable experience and standing in their respective service and community. These First Nations Elders provide guidance on supportive initiatives and programs and engage with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities to promote their branch of the armed services. They are role models and mentors for those who will continue the long history of military service by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. This is particularly resonant, given the overt discrimination and exclusion from the armed services endured by Australia's First Nations people.

Some First Nations peoples were so determined to serve in the armed forces that they denied their cultural heritage when enlisting. Estimates suggest that around 1,000 First Nations people volunteered during the First World War and some 3,000 in the Second World War. After the enlistment restrictions against First Nations people were revoked, they continued to serve in the military, deploying to Korea, Malaya, Borneo, Vietnam and elsewhere.

The tradition of military service had a profound influence on Harry Allie's decision to enlist in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) in 1966. A Gudjala man born in Charters Towers, Queensland, Harry had uncles who served in the First and Second World Wars and an aunt who served in the Land Army. His younger brother also served in the Army and deployed to Vietnam.

With 23 years of service behind him, during which he rose to the rank of Warrant Officer, Harry became the inaugural Indigenous Elder of the Air Force in 2012. He spoke of the importance of tradition and the value of 'inspiring participants in your own way'. 40

In 2022, Lunga Kitja woman Deborah Booker took over from Harry, having completed 13 years of service in the RAAF. Deborah has an extensive career working with First Nations recruitment and community organisations, including Exercise Kummundoo, an initiative of the RAAF. Exercise Kummundoo is focused on community engagement and works directly with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities on targeted projects such as improving health and dental services and supporting people deployed in diverse environments.

As an Indigenous Elder, Deborah has stressed that her position is to share knowledge. 'I'm here as someone to lean on, someone to talk to, to give them the confidence, and be a mentor to them until they're ready to spread their wings… My past roles have taught me to listen, to gain knowledge from community, the Elders and the Air Force, and to show respect and empathy'. 41

A similar ethos motivated Bundjalung man Roy Mundine, who completed a 36-year career in the Army and did tours of Malaya and Vietnam, where he was wounded and mentioned in dispatches for his leadership. Roy became Indigenous Elder of the Army in 2016. Coming from a family that encouraged discipline and relentless self-improvement, he has been passionate about the attractions of the Army and ensuring that First Nations recruits equip themselves for life.

I would say, if you are joining the Army, make sure you keep studying. An education is your pathway through life. It may be only a piece of paper, but there's other things you build on it. 42

Lorraine Hatton, a Quandamooka Elder of the Noonuccal and Ngughi peoples, in south-east Queensland, became the Army's second Indigenous Elder in 2020. She also had strong family connections with the military. Her father and uncle served during the Second World War, and her community on Minjerribah (North Stradbroke Island) has many people with links to the armed services.

Lorraine is acutely aware of the excitement of a career in the military, as well as the challenges that First Nations recruits have to overcome.

Leaving school having not completed her senior schooling (she completed Year 10), initially made her ineligible to join the Army. Undeterred, she joined the Army Reserve and got to know people in the Army's recruitment branch. With their encouragement, in 1986, she successfully renewed her application. 'Yeah, Lorraine – come on in!' 43

Lorraine served for 20 years, deploying to Irian Jaya, Egypt (as part of the Multinational Force and Observers peacekeeping operation) and Afghanistan. She was the first Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander woman to reach the rank of Warrant Officer (Class Two). Between her 2007 discharge and appointment as Indigenous Elder, Lorraine worked for wider recognition of the service of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in the military:

Working as an Army Elder allows me to reconnect with my Army family and navigate between Army and First Nations communities ... I have met so many inspirational people in this role and established long-lasting relationships. 44

The Navy appointed two Indigenous Elders, Phillip Bowie and Frances Visini, in August 2022. Phillip was born on Thursday Island, or Waiben, one of the inner islands of the Torres Strait. He enlisted in 1965 and trained at HMAS Leeuwin as a marine technician. He spent the next decade serving aboard HMA Ships Melbourne, Stalwart, Paluma, and Barbette.

'I am excited about sharing my experiences, and I can spin a good yarn about my time that may help the young recruits', Phillip said. 'I would like them to think of me as someone they can talk to if they find themselves in a difficult position or just need advice'. 45

At 17 years old, Frances, also from Thursday Island, joined the Women's Royal Australian Naval Service (WRANS) in 1970. She was inspired by another Torres Strait Islander woman who had joined the WRANS and the example of her uncle and her mother's cousin. She trained as an officers' steward and left the WRANS in 1972 to study to become a teacher.

'The main focus of our role is to support, mentor, guide, and inspire our First Nations recruits during their journey in the NIDP [National Indigenous Development Program],' Frances has said. 'We make sure their needs are culturally met and break down barriers where needed'. 46

Defence S20220368

Tunnel rats

Leading into Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War, the Vietnamese people had already fought for 2 decades against French efforts to reassert colonial control, expertly employing innovative guerrilla tactics. By the time Australian troops arrived in Vietnam in 1965, they knew the war they were entering was not going to be like any that they had experienced before. When the US troops arrived, with their massive firepower advantage in artillery and aerial bombardment, the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and Viet Cong continued the use of guerrilla tactics.

The NVA and Viet Cong avoided fixed battles. They did not assemble soldiers in one place in large numbers, operating instead in small groups that were constantly on the move. Using constant surprise to their advantage, they also engaged in sabotage and disguise.

To aid their movements, the NVA and Viet Cong also developed a sophisticated maze of tunnels. There were hundreds of tunnels dug in and around Vietnamese cities and villages, in a variety of depths, lengths, and complexities. These tunnels were used as escape routes and hiding places, to stash weapons and food. They served as cover for surprise attacks, allowing the NVA and Viet Cong to target Australian or US troops and melt away, seemingly without a trace.

The US troops responded by launching Operation Crimp and brought in Australian soldiers of the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1RAR). Their task was to search the Cù Chi district, north of Saigon, where a combination of intelligence and aerial surveillance suggested that the Viet Cong were using tunnels as accommodation and staging points for attacks.

An extensive US bombing campaign had decimated the landscape and revealed a few well-disguised tunnel entrances. These tunnels had been excavated almost 20 years before, during the earliest fighting against the French, and had been expanded and enlarged ever since. Dug by hand into hard clay, they were equipped with vents for air and wells for water and were hardy enough to withstand bombardment. A labyrinth of multiple entrances and winding passages, the tunnels were also highly dangerous: booby-trapped against intruders, with secret chambers, they provided protection against tear gas, smoke, and explosives.

While US preferences were generally to make the tunnels unviable, the Australian military engineers of 1RAR decided to search and map them. The perilous nature of the task was immediately apparent when an NVA or Viet Cong soldier killed 2 Australians and wounded 2 more. Nonetheless, the Australians pressed on, entering these narrow, claustrophobic spaces with little more than a flashlight, knife, and a piece of string to find their way back.

The deadly realities of the tunnel systems continued to take their toll, but the Australians, undeterred, still entered the tunnels to complete the mission. They uncovered stores of ammunition, radio equipment, medicines, and food. They also acquired valuable military intelligence and came to understand the utility of the tunnels in the Viet Cong guerrilla war strategy. The Australians who served acquired a nickname – 'tunnel rats', Sapper Bob O'Conner recalled:

No one is going to force you to do this kind of stuff... so, if it's not for you, ask for a transfer. But if you decide to stay, though, you've got to believe – and, I mean, really believe – that you're already dead. Tunnel rat casualty rates are ridiculously high, so it's not too hard to believe. Once you accept you're a dead man walking, the job gets much easier. It even becomes a challenge. 47

The Cù Chi tunnels were among the most expansive discovered in Vietnam, with more than 100 km of passages. They remained in use throughout the war, allowing the NVA and Viet Cong to resupply units and move and conceal people through dangerous areas. Today, they are a tourist attraction giving visitors an insight into the experiences of the 'tunnel rats' – from the moment they enter the dark, cramped passageways into the earth – and the courage that was necessary to enter them.

The entrance [to the tunnels] was so narrow it was hard to imagine it was intended for people at all. There was a straight drop then it doubled back up, like the U-bend under a sink. The tunnel turned again to go along under the surface and became a little wider, but there still wasn't room enough to turn around.

It was terrifying down there, armed only with a bayonet to probe for booby traps and a pistol to defend yourself. Already feeling claustrophobic behind a gas mask, the sensation was multiplied 100 times over in the constrictions of that, dark netherworld. Added to that, the knowledge that around any corner you could find yourself face to face with cornered foe or any other of a dozen forms of death. 48

AWM CUN/66/0522/VN

Clearance divers

Late in 1966, Minister for the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) Fred Chaney rebuked naval authorities for offering the services of a naval clearance diving team (CDT) to the US in South Vietnam. The team, on a tour of South Vietnam in May that year, had cheerfully and professionally neutralised a threat posed by sea mines and sunken ammunition in Nha Be and the port of Saigon. 'In future,' Chaney wrote, 'CDT 1 is not to carry out any tasks outside Australia except where those tasks have been approved'. 49

The Minister's annoyance stemmed from his concern about possible government embarrassment; it had nothing to do with the merits of the team's actions. The US authorities, who had been unable to deal with the matter themselves, had admired the CDT's initiative and expertise, and Australian naval commanders had noted the vulnerability that the team had exposed and temporarily rectified.

The following February, then, with the Minister's approval, the Navy dispatched to South Vietnam a newly formed clearance diving team, Clearance Diving Team 3 (CDT 3). CDT 3's main task was to defeat enemy efforts to sink or disable shipping and ship handling facilities along Vietnam's long coastline and many waterways.

The most common threat came from mines. Generally home-made, they were built from unexploded US bombs, artillery duds, and raw materials. The mines were laid by lines suspended in the water or, far more commonly, delivered by swimmers working under the cover of darkness, who would attach the mines to ship hulls and anchorage cables.

Tony Ey, who went to Vietnam as part of CDT 3 in 1970, when he was 22 years old, recalled that finding these mines and removing them was difficult and hazardous:

On board the vessel, it's not so bad, but when you get underwater, and search the hull, the visibility is zero. The water is dirty. Quite often, it's the middle of the night, a torch isn't going to do you much good anyway, so you have no choice but to use the ten eyes on the end of each finger. And that's the way we were taught. You just feel. You progressively search the ship the best way you can. 50 51

On one occasion, the team located a partially detonated mine that was still attached to a ship. The team tried to pull the mine off using a rope, but the rope snapped. Tony dove into the water to try again.

I could only partially see the mine when I had my dive-mask on and my nose virtually pressed against it. I could see that the arming and time switches still had their pins inserted… With much effort, I pulled the mine off the fender. I caused quite a bit of unrest on the patrol boat when I swam back to it, with the mine in my hands! 52

The constant proof of CDT 3's value saw them called on for missions further afield. Soon, CDT 3 was working on land, defusing and disposing of bombs and ordnances, and they came to support offensive operations by destroying riverine barriers, bunkers, and booby traps.

The official historian of the RAN's involvement in Vietnam, Jeffrey Grey, wrote that the work was 'difficult, often dangerous, and frequently disagreeable'. 53 The personnel of CDT 3 did the job with diligence and skill.

The outlook necessary for a person to dive into the darkness, on their own, and swim up to explosives that might detonate at any moment, is unique. For the team, it is a viewpoint summarised in its motto: 'United and undaunted'. 54

AWM NAVYM1003/34

Man's best friend

Dogs have often played an important role in Australia's armed forces. Military working dogs are chosen when they are just puppies. To be selected, the young dogs need to show that they are fast, agile, focused and can follow directions. Over time, many different dog breeds have worked with Australia's military. These special dogs work side by side with their handlers in Australia and overseas.

The dog's keen hearing and sense of smell make them perfect at their jobs. They are effective security guards and their exceptional abilities help to detect explosives. They can help prevent dangerous situations by alerting their handler to the presence of enemies.

The Special Operations Military Working Dogs have been credited with saving many lives.

One military dog was Kuga, a Belgian Malinois. During a special operation in Afghanistan, Kuga was sent to scout the area. Kuga warned his handler of enemy presence nearby. He moved down a bank and started to swim across the river to investigate further. As he was swimming, he was injured by machine-gun fire. Despite his injuries, he continued to the other side of the bank. Kuga then charged towards the shooter, distracting him from the Australian troops. When Kuga was reunited with his handler, he was given emergency first aid. He was evacuated by helicopter to receive treatment in Afghanistan, Germany and Australia.

In 2018, Kuga was awarded the PDSA Dickin Medal for extraordinary determination and bravery. He was the first Australian dog to be awarded the Dickin Medal. Kuga's extraordinary actions in the face of danger potentially saved lives that day.

In 2008, another military working dog, named Sarbi, who was trained as an Explosive Detection Dog, used her powerful sense of smell to sniff out improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and other explosives in war zones. During her second tour to Afghanistan, Sarbi and her handler Sergeant David Simpson were involved in an ambush – the same action for which Mark Donaldson was awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia.

As bullets flew past them, David moved quickly around the vehicles, firing his weapon and avoiding enemy fire, when suddenly he heard a 'boom'. Shrapnel from an exploding rocket-propelled grenade hit him in the back of the leg, breaking the metal clip attaching Sarbi to his body armour. Startled by a burst of machine-gun fire, Sarbi ran away. David searched for her for 10 days without success and feared he might never see her again.

But 14 months later, in October 2009, Sarbi, now dirty and much heavier, was found by an American soldier and returned to the base in Tarin Kot. She was completely healthy and her presence back at the base lifted the morale of the service men and women immediately. Sarbi was reunited with David in Afghanistan in April 2010. The following year, she received the RSPCA Australian Purple Cross for exceptional courage and outstanding service to humans. Sarbi is now retired and living with David and his wife at their home.

Sculptures and memorials around Australia honour the special work of military working dogs.

AWM ART94166

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Copyright

Commonwealth of Australia 2024. Permission is given by the Commonwealth for this publication to be copied royalty free within Australia solely for educational purposes. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced for commercial purposes.

To the best of DVA's knowledge, copyright permission, where copyright permission is required, has been obtained for any non-Commonwealth material used in this booklet and for the use of such material for educational purposes. The Commonwealth shall not be responsible for any actions resulting from any errors or omissions contained in this booklet. If you believe there has been an error or omission in any of the material, please contact DVA at education@dva.gov.au.