Australian peacekeepers in Sudan and South Sudan since 2005

We [Southern Sudanese] are very happy to come to Australia to find a multicultural country. We need to change Sudan to be like that. We need Australia to support us in growing up like a new child. In Sudan, you can find unexplored wealth here but we also have a corrupt government and this is a potential crisis for the future of Africa ... but the African people in Australia can play a central role in transforming power. We can train our brother and sisters to help themselves.

[Southern Sudanese and Other Marginalised Communities Associations, Darfur Australia Network, 2010]

Cultural and political background

In the early 19th century, Egypt, as part of the Ottoman Empire, conquered Sudan. This meant the population in the north of Sudan became an Arabic-speaking majority, while southern Sudan’s population was similar to other East African colonies, with many Black African tribes.

The Egyptian ruler imposed high taxes and exploited natural resources. Drought, famine and slave trading increased, and many people fled their homes. Around 30,000 Sudanese people were conscripted into the Egyptian army, and Arabic speakers who resisted Egyptian occupation were defeated. New criminal codes were introduced, reducing the power of Islamic judges and sharia courts.

This period of oppression led to a brutal uprising – the Mahdist War. Muhammad Ahmad bin Abd Allah, who claimed to be an Islamic messianic figure called the Mahdi, led a Muslim independence force in a series of battles against the Ottoman Empire.

The Mahdist Sudanese overthrew the Ottoman–Egyptian government of Sudan in 1881. European influence in Egypt grew during this period, as did British interest in Mahdist Sudan. Instability was widespread as the fighting continued.

There was wide colonial Australian moral and political support for the British Empire at this time. Australia's military involvement was limited to a small contingent from New South Wales with an infantry and artillery component. This contingent was deployed to Suakin in 1885 as part of the Sudan Campaign.

With British help, the Mahdist regime was defeated in 1898.

Anglo–Egyptian Sudan

After the Mahdist War, Britain and Egypt reached an agreement on an Anglo–Egyptian joint administration. Sudan would be run by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent. This colonial system essentially gave the United Kingdom (UK) control of Sudan.

The northern and southern regions of Anglo–Egyptian Sudan were governed separately. British colonial policy emphasised the development of the Arab north, largely ignoring the African south. Ethnic and religious tensions increased, and anger at Britain’s colonial administration increased.

During World War II, resistance to British control grew despite the Sudanese government fighting alongside the Allies in the East African Campaign.

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Towards Sudan’s independence

After World War II, a nationalist movement continued to grow within the military. This led to the formation of a Free Officers Movement. In 1952, with support from the Muslim Brotherhood and the Communist Democratic Movement for National Liberation, the Free Officers Movement staged a military coup. The monarchy was overthrown, undermining British influence in Sudan.

The first president of Egypt took office on 28 July 1953, marking the beginning of the path toward Sudanese independence.

Egypt’s new leaders believed the only way to end British domination in Sudan was to remove its sovereignty claims. At the time, the UK supported the Mahdist successor, Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi, believing he would resist Sudanese independence. Rahman’s incompetence caused his government to lose support in northern and central Sudan.

Sensing the instability, Egypt and the UK allowed the north and south Sudanese regions to have a free vote on whether they wished for British withdrawal with Egyptian administration or complete independence from all colonial governance.

The Republic of Sudan

Sudan was established as an independent sovereign state on 1 January 1956 after a democratic election. On 3 March, an election law was passed granting women the right to vote for the first time in Egyptian history.

While Sudan achieved independence without conflict, it did so without any agreement on the form and content of a permanent constitution. The country was also torn by problems resulting from its governance by the UK and Egypt under the arrangements known as the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.

The British policy of governing Sudan's northern and southern regions independently led to an educated political elite in the north and poorer marginalised peoples in the south. Trade was discouraged between the regions, and southern Sudan lacked basic infrastructure like schools, hospitals, roads and bridges.

First Sudanese Civil War 1955 to 1972

The war between the northern and southern regions of Sudan began in 1955.

After independence, the northern and southern governments were merged, and northern Sudanese administrators were put in charge of southern Sudan. Only 6 of around 800 senior positions were given to southern leaders. As a result, ethnic and religious tensions continued to escalate. Without an independent governing body, the people of South Sudan were unable to address the political inequality, lack of infrastructure and discrimination within their region.

On 18 August 1955, members of the Sudan Defence Force mutinied against perceived oppression by the north. This spurred more mutinies, and the South Sudan insurgency movement began. By 1963, the group had gathered momentum, with almost 2,000 members, and formed the Anyanya guerrilla army. Conflict with the military government in the capital, Khartoum, followed.

In October 1964, Prime Minister Ibrahim Abboud asked civilians to propose solutions to the 'southern problem'. Abboud’s government was criticised for its poor handling of other national issues and reacted by trying to silence protests that arose. This outraged the population. On 20 October, during a University of Khartoum seminar on 'The Problem of the Southern Sudan', riot police stormed the building.

The conflict resulted in 3 deaths and an escalation in civil disobedience. A strike spread throughout Sudan. Abboud dissolved his government after continuing protests led to many more people being killed. Leaders of the strike protests formed the United National Front (UNF). They nominated a non-political senior civil servant, Sirr Al-Khatim Al-Khalifa Al-Hassan, as prime minister of the new transitional government. However, political turmoil continued within the parties.

In 1971, former army lieutenant Joseph Legu took over leadership of the Anyanya army. He unified the fighters under a new South Sudan Liberation Movement (SSLM) and successfully organised a coup against the president. Legu assumed leadership both politically and militarily.

In 1972, Legu signed the Addis Ababa Agreement with the north. This treaty allowed South Sudan to run itself through a separate legislative and executive body. It also provided some religious and cultural autonomy.

The agreement ended the 17-year civil war in which around half a million people died, and hundreds of thousands were forced to flee their homes.

Between the wars

The peace agreement between the central Khartoum government and South Sudan led to a brief interlude of peace. South Sudan benefited from recognition of the region's autonomy, a new constitution and the establishment of local law enforcement agencies and key political institutions. But northern Sudan refused to concede on the military front, so the south continued to be ruled under the northern regime.

Between 1974 and 1976, northern violations of the Addis Ababa Agreement led to several violent mutinies by former Anyanya members.

In 1978, oil was discovered in Bentiu, near the border of northern and southern Sudan. By 1982, several oilfields operated across the southern region. In violation of the Addis Ababa Agreement, Sudan's president, Jaafar Nimeiry, attempted to seize control of the fields near the border.

In 1981, Nimeiry shifted toward Islamist political governance. He imposed sharia (Islamic) law throughout the country and alienated the secular, Christian and animist population in the south. Nimeiry re-formed the boundaries of southern Sudan and dissolved the southern government. This violation of the Addis Ababa Agreement prompted a renewal of civil war in Sudan.

Second Sudanese Civil War 1983 to 2005

In 1983, rebels within the Sudanese Army launched a mutiny that inspired several more and led to the formation of the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). The political wing of the SPLA, the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), arose as an autonomous central government for southern Sudan. It was also a movement for all oppressed and marginalised Sudanese people.

Throughout the 1980s, the successive Sudanese governments failed to improve Sudan’s situation. Ongoing conflict, slavery, war crimes and human rights violations, combined with intense drought, led to widespread famine and displacement.

A lack of investment in southern education, health care, industry and employment weakened Sudan’s economy. More than 4 million southerners who were unable to grow food or earn enough to feed themselves were forced from their homes.

After a coup in 1989, Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir took leadership of the government. He announced himself president and awarded himself all the executive and legislative powers, creating a one-party state. With support from the National Islamic Front (NIF), Iran, China and former Soviet republics, Al-Bashir made large-scale arms purchases to try to end the civil war through military victory.

A harsher penal code was introduced in 1991, legalising punishments such as amputations and stoning. Fundamentalist Islamic influences led to the banning of political parties, trade unions and non-religious institutions, and the imposition of strict dress and behaviour codes on women. More than 78,000 people were purged from army, police and civil administration to reshape the state in the Al-Bashir regime's favour.

Throughout the 1990s, the Al-Bashir government used local militias to combat insurgency. This resulted in the militarisation of many southern communities. Ethnic violence increased, and many civilians were caught in the crossfire. Tribal gangs formed in defence but often brutally attacked other tribes.

The frontline fighting extended into the north-eastern parts of Sudan. The surrounding countries of Eritrea, Ethiopia and Uganda strengthened their military support for the SPLA.

Then, in 1997, an alliance of militia groups aligned with the SPLA signed the Khartoum Peace Agreement with the NIF.

Khartoum Peace Agreement

The Khartoum Peace Agreement established a Southern States Coordinating Council that would oversee the transition to peace over a 4-year period. However, given that the agreement was not signed by the SPLA, its legitimacy was criticised, and it was ineffective in preventing further fighting. In fact, the SPLA captured most of Central Equatoria state in central South Sudan and Western Equatoria state in south-western South Sudan in a campaign codenamed ‘Operation Thunderbolt’ later the same year.

By the early 2000s, oppression of the non-Arab population in the west of Sudan was rife. In response, the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) clashed with the Arabised African militia (Janjaweed militia), Sudanese military and police.

Darfur war and genocide

Darfur, a region in Sudan’s west, is home to around 6 million people and several dozen tribes. Ethnic conflict has been an ongoing issue.

In 2003, as war in Darfur escalated, the Sudanese government responded by carrying out ethnic cleansing (the mass expulsion and killing) of Darfur’s non-Arabs. This resulted in the indictment of Al-Bashir by the International Criminal Court (ICC) for mass killing, rape and pillage against civilians in Darfur. However, Al-Bashir was never formally charged with genocide.

These systematic massacres of tribespeople resulted in around 300,000 civilian deaths between 2003 and 2013. In 2016, the government allegedly used chemical weapons against the local population, and millions of people were displaced. More than 3 million people were affected by the conflict.

As part of the conflict in Darfur, the Janjaweed were responsible for the brutal treatment of women and young girls. Non-Arab women and children were singled out in an attempt to eliminate the presence of Black Africans in Darfur.

Nairobi Comprehensive Peace Agreement

Between 2003 and early 2004, southern rebels and the government began peace talks and made substantial progress. However, clashes between groups continued.

With encouragement from the Intergovernmental Authority on Development and partners on 9 January 2005, the SPLM, SPLA and Sudanese government signed the Nairobi Comprehensive Peace Agreement. The key terms of the peace agreement gave the south autonomy for 6 years, followed by a referendum on continuing separation, plus agreed sharing of oilfield income between the northern and southern regions. Islamic law was to remain in the north, but continued use of sharia law was to be decided by an elected assembly in the south.

The agreement ended the Second Sudanese Civil War. The peace agreement was a prerequisite to the South Sudan referendum planned for 2011.

United Nations Mission in Sudan 2005 to 2011

To support the implementation of the peace treaty, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1590 and established the United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS).

Deployed in 2005, UNMIS was a multinational force made up of:

• around 10,000 military personnel
• 750 military observers
• 715 civilian police
• 1,000 international civilian staff
• 2,600 national staff
• 214 UN volunteers.

The troops were there to provide humanitarian help and protection, promote human rights and support the African Union Mission in Sudan.

The Australian peacekeeping operation was codenamed Operation Azure, and 116 Australians served as part of UNMIS.

Working in remote regions, in small contingents and without adequate resources and modern infrastructure contributed to the challenges in Sudan.

In March 2006, Captain Mark Thorp and Lieutenant Vince Carroll were part of a patrol investigating an ambush of a convoy of unarmed members of a disbanded faction and their families. The 16-vehicle convoy from Khartoum carrying two thousand men, women and children was attacked, leaving 13 killed, dozens wounded and most vehicles damaged. The UN patrol sent to investigate, led by Captain Thorp, was unarmed. On arrival at the ambush site at first light, Captain Thorp established control of the families and soldiers milling about and conducted detailed interviews with witnesses and convoy members. Meanwhile, Lieutenant Carroll, who had completed a three-week combat first-aid course, established a triage area and a temporary aid post where he treated a number of broken bones and wounds from [rocket-propelled grenade] strike fragments. Thorp and Carroll were praised for displaying the degree of selflessness and professionalism that had come to be expected from Australian soldiers in such circumstances.

[Blaxland, John (2014), The Australian Army from Whitlam to Howard, pp 288–299]

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African Union–United Nations Mission in Darfur 2007 to 2020

Australia will join an international force under the United Nations Assistance Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) to help implement a plan to restore peace and stability to the strife torn region of Sudan… Darfur has been a continuing tragedy and the Australian Government has a responsibility to act and this contribution demonstrates our commitment to the UN and restoring peace and stability in Darfur. An estimated 200,000 people have died from the combined effects of war, famine and diseases since 2003 and an estimated two million people have been displaced. When fully deployed, UNAMID will become the UN's largest peacekeeping operation with an estimated 20,000 troops and 6,000 police and civilian personnel.

[Kevin Rudd, Australia to Contribute to Darfur Peace Process Joint Media Release with the Minister for Defence, Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet, 2008]

On 31 July 2007, the Security Council adopted Resolution 1769 and established the African Union–United Nations Mission in Darfur (UNAMID). It was a joint African Union and UN peacekeeping mission. It was formed to help stabilise war-torn Darfur so peace talks could continue.

Its initial 12-month mandate was extended multiple times until 2011.

The UNAMID mission was to assist with internal security, human rights and reporting on borders with Chad and Central African Republic. The Australian peacekeeping operation was codenamed Operation Hedgerow.

Australia contributed 8 personnel to UNAMID, including specialists in operations, logistics and movement planning. They were based at the UNAMID headquarters at El Fasher in North Darfur state.

In August 2008, Australia deployed a further 4 troops as part of UNAMID for 6 months.

Read more about UNAMID from the United Nations.

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South Sudan independence referendum

Between 9 and 15 January 2011, South Sudan held a referendum on whether it should remain part of Sudan or become independent. A referendum in Abyei (near the border of north and south Sudan) was postponed and the region plans to hold its own referendum in the future.

South Sudan voted overwhelmingly in favour of independence, with 98.83% of the eligible population voting in favour. The predetermined date for creation of the independent state was 9 July 2011.

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United Nations Mission in South Sudan 2011–

The United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) was established in 2011 after the Security Council passed Resolution 1996. UNMISS became an independent mission on 9 July 2011. Since December 2016, UNMISS has been led by the Secretary-General’s Special Representative.

The UNMISS mandate includes:

• support for peace consolidation to foster long-term stability and economic development
• support the government of the Republic of South Sudan in conflict prevention, mitigation and protection of civilians
• support the government of the Republic of South Sudan in developing its capacity for security and law enforcement.

The UNMISS mission is ongoing.

The Australian Defence Force's peacekeeping operation is codenamed Operation Aslan. Australia’s commitment helps the UN protect civilians, monitor and investigate human rights violations, and deliver humanitarian assistance.

The United Nations Peacekeeping website records Australia's historical and current troop and police contribution.

Australian contingent personnel filled key positions in UNMISS, such as military liaison officers and operations, aviation and logistics-support roles.

Australia’s relationship with countries of Africa is very important as Australia has a moral obligation and responsibility in the region of Africa, just as it has to developing countries in South East Asia and the Pacific. Australia can come to be part of Africa’s future by supporting Africa’s efforts to promote peace and security and through development and emergency aid assistance.

[Adam Khamis, quoted in Review of Australia’s relationship with the countries of Africa (2010)]

Young Voices of South Sudan

In 2020, Australian Army Captain Stephanie Palfrey-Sneddon served with UNMISS in Juba, the capital of South Sudan, as part of Operation Aslan. During her time there, she produced a book featuring the stories of young people in South Sudan, with the proceeds going to local schools to help pay for food, books and classroom facilities.

The idea for the book came from a need to remain socially distant while capturing some of the inspiring stories I had witnessed… We spoke about things like what they would ask for if they could have one wish and what they thought was the most important thing in life… There were a few common themes that came out in their answers: the importance of family, the power of love, and football.

The majority of the school buildings are made of mud brick walls, which wash away during heavy rains. There are no doors and windows, and there is a high crime rate in the area… The majority of students also have additional responsibilities in helping to raise their younger siblings, and some are survivors of gender-based violence.

My wish for the book is that it will serve as a reminder of the power of hope, no matter the circumstances… Aside from the chance of an education they may not otherwise have access to, I hope it inspires the students to continue striving to reach their goals with the same ambition and positivity they had when they shared with me their dreams for the future.

[Major Kris Gardiner, Captain's book to raise funds for African schools, Department of Defence, 2020]

Watch as Stephanie shares her book with Sudanese children.

AFP officers in South Sudan 2006 to 2014

The Australian Federal Police (AFP) has contributed to many international peacekeeping missions. A contingent of some 10 AFP officers was initially deployed as part of UNMIS in 2006. In August 2011, they transitioned to UNMISS.

The AFP officers have helped with:

• development of police training and evaluation programs
• mentoring and training members of the South Sudan Police Service.

Essentially, their role was to build the capacity of local Sudanese police.

The AFP also founded a 'Police Women’s Network' as part of the UNMISS. The positive contribution of this network has prompted the UN to consider introducing a women’s network into all its missions.

The AFP ceased its contribution to UNMISS in January 2014.

South Sudan and Sudan today

Both countries still suffer from political instability, economic challenges and internal corruption. Violent discrimination, humanitarian and human rights violations, and destruction from conflict are common causes of displacement, despite UN and international aid.

Read more about:

• South Sudan's current challenges
• Sudan's current challenges
   

Commemoration

National Peacekeepers' Day

On 14 September each year National Peacekeepers' Day is observed. It's the anniversary of the day Australia became the world's first peacekeepers to deploy into the field, in the Netherlands East Indies (now Indonesia) in 1947. It’s a day to recognise the important work of those who have served, and continue to serve, in the name of global peace.

Learn more about Australia's peacekeeping missions since 1947.

National Police Remembrance Day

On 28 September each year, all police jurisdictions in Australia honour those officers who have lost their lives in the line of duty, including on global peacekeeping operations.

International Day of UN Peacekeepers

29 May is a day of commemoration and acknowledgement of all military, police and civilian personnel who have served as peacekeepers with the UN. Since UN peacekeeping began, more than 4,000 peacekeepers from many countries have lost their lives while performing their duties under the UN flag.