Build up of forces in Australia 1942 to 1944

Defence of Australia

The threat of potential Japanese expansion was on many people's minds after World War I. Learning Japanese history and language was a military requirement from 1917. In January 1919, prime minister Billy Hughes was quoted as telling a New York Times correspondent:

The Japanese are a great people, but our ideals and theirs differ fundamentally. We do not wish Japanese expansion in our direction. We have a small population compared with that of Japan, and neither our interests or aspirations are identical with theirs.

In 1921, public attention was focused on the possibility of a war between Japan and the United States (US). At the time, Hughes made several speeches questioning Australia's reliance on the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and the support of the US in the Pacific.

Australian military leaders had been planning Australia's defence since at least 1926. That's when Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Wynter presented an influential argument against reliance on the British naval presence at Singapore.

By 1936, politicians were backing the military views, with opposition leader John Curtin and others arguing for a defence policy focused on repelling an invasion of Australian territory.

Mid-war situation

The Australian Government didn't seriously consider such national defence a reality until well into World War II.

By early 1941, Australia had sent to Europe, the Mediterranean and the Middle East:

• large contingents of the Royal Australian Navy (RAN)
• 6th, 7th and 9th infantry divisions of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF)
• large contingents of the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF).

The 8th Division AIF, several RAAF squadrons and RAN warships had been sent to Malaya. Others were in the Australian territories of Papua and New Guinea, and more were ready to follow to the Netherlands East Indies (now Indonesia). These military actions, however, were token gestures without support from the UK and the US.

In 1941, the RAAF had only 13 combat units under RAAF headquarters and no modern fighter aircraft.

Most of the RAN's 68 vessels were in Singapore or Australian waters. The RAN did not have any capital ships, the largest and most important vessels in a navy.

When Japan bombed Hawaii's Pearl Harbor in December 1941, most of Australia's combat forces were heavily involved in campaigns across:

• Europe
• North Africa and the Middle East.

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Homefront decisions

Some experienced commanders, including Major General Sir Iven Mackay, had been brought home from the Middle East. (More were recalled from December 1941.)

In September 1941, Mackay became General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the Home Forces, under the direction of the Chief of the General Staff, General Vernon Sturdee. Mackay's job was to try and 'right 20 years of defence mismanagement in the face of the impending Japanese threat'.

On 4 February 1942, General Mackay asked the Minister for the Army, Frank Forde, for direction and agreement on the areas that needed to be held in the event of a Japanese invasion. They identified the area around Port Kembla, Sydney, Lithgow and Newcastle as important.

The economic and military significance of Melbourne and the decision to develop a US base in Brisbane meant that those 2 cities were regarded as crucial.

But there were only 5 divisions of the Citizen Military Forces defending 1,600 km of coastline between Brisbane and Melbourne.

Within 2 weeks of Mackay's memorandum, the Army lost over 15,000 troops when Singapore fell to the Japanese.

There was now a pressing question whether to use the troops returning from the Middle East — mainly the 6th and 7th divisions — to shore up the defence of the Netherlands East Indies, or return them to Australia.

Chief of the General Staff, General Vernon Sturdee, argued that Australia was a better jumping-off point to attack Japanese-held territory in the Pacific. He threatened to resign if the Australian Government did not press the British government for the return of the AIF to Australia. His argument depended on a US buildup in Australia, which was already becoming a reality.

There were US squadrons already based in Australia. On 14 February 1942, the US sent the 41st Infantry Division to Australia (they arrived on 6 April).

On 23 February 1942, the British prime minister, Winston Churchill, agreed to send the Australian troops home.

On 26 March 1942, General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in the Pacific, told Australian politicians in the Advisory War Council that his first aim was now 'to make Australia secure'.

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Army personnel

In the face of the threat of a Japanese invasion, the Australian Government needed to rapidly expand its home army, the Australian Military Forces (AMF).

When the war started, the Permanent Military Forces (PMF) provided the professional cadre (officers) and instructional staff for its army. It was very small throughout the inter-war period and had grown to about 3,500 men by 1939.

The PMF was supported by trained militiamen who were part-time members of the Citizen Military Forces (CMF).

The CMF was organised into 4 infantry divisions (with the nucleus of a 5th division) and 2 cavalry divisions.

In its role to defend Australia and its territories, CMF members were involved in:

• spotting enemy aircraft and operating anti-aircraft installations
• spotting enemy vessels and operating the coast defence installations
• protecting and patrolling around vital industries.

From 1 January 1940, the Australian Government also operated a compulsory Militia training scheme.

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Expansion of the home army

In December 1941, the Australian Government made a series of announcements to bolster home defence, including:

• cancellation of holiday leave for personnel in all 3 services (Navy, Army, Air Force)
• partial mobilisation of CMF members and Militia trainees for an intensive refresher course
• enlistment of more women in the Army and the Air Force
• call up of eligible men in class 2 – single men and widowers aged between 35 and 45 with no children – to register for service by 23 December 1941
• call up of eligible men in class 3 – married men and widowers aged between 18 and 35 with children – to register for service by 23 December 1941.

From early 1942, Australia became a notable base from which the Allies could recapture ground lost to the Japanese in the Asia–Pacific region.

By late August 1942, the AMF peaked at around 476,000 men. It was reduced later that year and the following year as strategic priorities shifted. From 1943 onwards, about 100,000 men were discharged from army service because more civilians were needed to work in industry.

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Return from the Middle East

A key to the build-up of forces in Australia was the return of the I Australian Corps from the Middle East.

The 9th Division began its return in early 1942. The men started boarding ships in Palestine on 24 January. Most of the 7th had disembarked in Fremantle by late February 1942.

The 7th Division began its return in early 1942. The men moved from Syria to Palestine to start boarding ships on 30 January. The 7th's return was staggered across 5 convoys of troop transport ships. Most of the 7th had disembarked in Adelaide by mid-March 1942. Some elements of the 7th on HMT Orcades were diverted to the defence of Java.

The 6th Division also began its return from Syria in early 1942. The 19th Brigade of the 6th Division arrived in March 1942. The 2 other brigades – the 16th and 17th – were diverted to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) for several months of garrison duty.

By mid-1942, the 6th, 7th and 9th divisions had returned from the Middle East to Australia, except for those men who had been lost in Java.

This boosted Australia's defence by some 46,000 troops returning from the Middle East, joining around 63,000 AIF personnel who never left Australia, plus about 280,000 militiamen in the CMF and 33,000 US servicemen.

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Challenges for home defence

From the outset, tensions arose between manpower and army personnel policies, which underpinned later decisions on force size.

In 1939, the Australian Government had established a list of reserved occupations to prevent the enlistment of essential workers. The list included critical roles in agriculture, engineering, manufacturing, mining, munitions and transport. People in these jobs could be stopped from joining up, so industries on the home front could continue producing munitions and essential goods.

About 30% of CMF members were exempted from active duty because they worked in essential services.

By July 1940, the AIF had temporarily suspended enlistments due to overwhelming applications following the fall of France to Germany. This was intended to divert applicants to the CMF and retain labour for essential industries in Australia.

In early 1942, the Chief of the General Staff, General Sturdee, noted that the AMF was trying to build up forces to a strength of 300,000 personnel to defend Australia.

With such rapid expansion, the AMF faced severe shortages of modern equipment, including anti-aircraft weapons, anti-tank guns and tanks.

Possibly of more concern, thousands of the new infantry recruits who joined the AMF in early 1942 were inadequately trained at first. They often reached their assigned units without having completed basic musketry or small arms courses.

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United States reinforcements

In 1942, the United States (US) began deploying US troops to Australia.

The deployment of US reinforcements to Australia was helped by 2 factors:

• the arrival of the diverted Pensacola Convoy in Brisbane on 22 December 1941
• the relocation of General Douglas MacArthur to Darwin in March 1942, when he took command of the South-West Pacific Area (SWPA).

Initially, the US sent the 41st Division and 8,000 service troops. As the Pacific War escalated, the US indicated a willingness to deploy more than 40,000 extra troops for Australia's home defence.

Around 1 million US service personnel passed through Australia during the war. Most troops were located in Queensland, with smaller deployments in other states and territories.

Tensions between Americans and Australians bubbled over in late 1942 during the Battle of Brisbane riot.

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Air defences

In early 1942, Japanese attacks on northern Australia meant the country needed to expand its anti-aircraft defences. Throughout 1942 and 1943, Japanese forces bombed Australia's mainland on 97 separate occasions using a mix of carrier-based and land-based aircraft.

By April 1942, there were 6 US anti-aircraft battalions in Australia, based in Fremantle, Darwin, Townsville and Brisbane.

Australian anti-aircraft groups, each with about 6 anti-aircraft batteries of 12 guns, were based at Darwin, Townsville, Brisbane, Newcastle, Port Kembla, Melbourne and Fremantle.

In March 1942, the 49th Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) began arriving in Australia to defend Darwin.

By July 1942, the Allies' focus shifted more toward offensive operations rather than defensive ones.

In August 1942, General George Kenney, commander of the Allied air forces in the SWPA, moved the 49th Fighter Group to New Guinea. He replaced it at Darwin with 2 Australian P-40 squadrons – No 76 Squadron RAAF from New Guinea and No 77 Squadron RAAF from Western Australia.

Up to October 1942, Darwin was home to a northern strike force of Hudsons of the Australian Nos 2 and 13 Squadrons. After a Japanese raid on 19 February 1942, both squadrons were moved south to Daly Waters.

Once the 49th Fighter Group left Darwin, the 2 Australian squadrons moved again. No 2 Squadron moved to Darwin RAAF Station and No 13 Squadron to Hughes airfield, 40 km south.

The No 1 Mobile Works Squadron RAAF began operating in July 1942. Other ancillary units were established along a chain of north–south airfields.

RAAF units arriving in Darwin included No 34 Transport Squadron and No 2 Air Ambulance Unit.

In October 1942, No 31 Squadron arrived in Darwin, equipped with the Beaufighter. This consolidated the Northern Territory’s role as a base for attack.

By the end of 1942, the Allies rapidly assembled an anti-aircraft defence in the SWPA, with most units based in Australia:

• 2 heavy anti-aircraft regiments – around 32,000 men armed with 3.7-inch guns
• 32 static heavy anti-aircraft batteries
• one light anti-aircraft regiment – armed with 40 mm Bofors and 20 mm Oerlikon guns
• 16 independent light anti-aircraft batteries
• searchlight units
• various training units.

Key air bases were also operating at Townsville and Horn Island in the Torres Strait. Both were well defended against Japanese attack.

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Auxiliary and volunteer services

Thousands of Australians ineligible for military service joined other organisations, including:

• Volunteer Defence Corps (VDC), modelled on the British Home Guard
• Volunteer Air Observers Corps (VAOC), modelled on the British Royal Observer Corps.

Set up in July 1940, the VDC comprised people exempted from the CMF but willing to train for roles in guerrilla warfare, local defence and reconnaissance. It was an initiative of the Returned Sailors', Soldiers' and Airmen's Imperial League of Australia (RSSAILA, now RSL).

Nearly 13,000 VDC members, mostly World War I veterans, protected coastal defences against sabotage or attack. They also ran internment and POW camps.

The VOAC was formed in 1941 and staffed by civilian volunteers. It supported the Royal Australian Air Force by sighting and observing aircraft over Australia.

The Australian Government established women's auxiliary services:

• Women's Auxiliary Australian Air Force (WAAAF) in March 1941
• Women's Royal Australian Naval Service (WRANS) in April 1941, to respond to the telegraphists' shortage in the Royal Australian Navy
• Australian Women's Army Service (AWAS) in August 1941, to release men from some duties to join combat units.

The creation and growth of volunteer and women's auxiliary services reflected the increasing urgency of Australia's war situation.

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Aftermath

By the middle of 1942, it was clear that a Japanese invasion of Australia was unlikely. But it was not until June 1943 that prime minister Curtin announced publicly that the danger of invasion had passed.

I do not think the enemy can now invade this country. We proved that with the resources we have had, together with the command of the sea established by the gallant United States Navy by decisive victories at Midway Island and the Solomon Islands. We are not yet immune to marauding raids which may cause damage and loss. I believe, however, that we can hold Australia as a base from which to launch both limited and major offensives against Japan.

['HOLDING WAR ENDED FOR AUSTRALIA', The Canberra Times, 11 June 1943, p 2.]

Many of the defensive measures at home continued to operate despite the reduced threat level. For example, 3 infantry brigades and 32,000 troops were based in the Northern Territory at the end of 1943.

The successful defence of Australia and the establishment of Australian and US military bases on the mainland helped the Allies secure victory in the Pacific.

After World War II, the PMF was reorganised. On 30 September 1947, it was renamed the Australian Regular Army.

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